Early Iron Age. General characteristics. What is the Iron Age? Iron Age concept
a period in the development of mankind that began in connection with the manufacture and use of iron tools and weapons. Replaced by the Bronze Age at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. The use of iron contributed to a significant increase in production and the collapse of the primitive communal system.
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IRON AGE
an era in the primitive and early class history of mankind, characterized by the spread of iron metallurgy and the production of iron. guns The idea of three centuries: stone, bronze and iron - arose in the ancient world (Titus Lucretius Carus). The term "J.v." was put into use ca. ser. 19th century Danish archaeologist K. J. Thomsen. The most important research, original. classification and dating of monuments of the late century. in the West Europe produced by M. Gernes, O. Montelius, O. Tischler, M. Reinecke, J. Dechelet, N. Oberg, J. L. Pietsch and J. Kostrzewski; in East Europe - V. A. Gorodtsov, A. A. Spitsyn, Yu. V. Gauthier, P. N. Tretyakov, A. P. Smirnov, Kh. A. Moora, M. I. Artamonov, B. N. Grakov and etc.; in Siberia - S. A. Teploukhov, S. V. Kiselev, S. I. Rudenko and others; in the Caucasus - B. A. Kuftin, B. B. Piotrovsky, E. I. Krupnov and others. The initial period. spread of gas industries survived all countries at different times, however, by the century. Usually only the cultures of primitive tribes that lived outside the territories of the ancient slave owners are included. civilizations that arose back in the Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages (Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, India, China). J.v. compared with previous archaeological eras (Cam. and Bronze Ages) is very short. His chronological borders: from 9-7 centuries. BC e., when many primitive tribes of Europe and Asia developed their own iron metallurgy, and until the time of the emergence of a class society and state among these tribes. Some modern foreign scientists who consider the time of the appearance of letters to be the end of primitive history. sources attribute the end of the Zh. century. Zap. Europe by the 1st century. BC e., when Rome appears. letters sources containing information about Western European. tribes Since to this day iron remains the most important material from which tools are made, modern ones. the era is included in the Life Century, therefore for archaeological. For the periodization of primitive history, the term “early life history” is also used. On the territory Zap. Europe in early life. only its beginning is called (the so-called Hallstatt culture). Despite the fact that iron is the most common metal in the world, it was developed late by man, since it is almost never found in nature in its pure form, is difficult to process, and its ores are difficult to distinguish from various minerals. Initially, meteorite iron became known to mankind. Small objects made of iron (primarily ornaments) are found in the 1st half. 3rd millennium BC e. in Egypt, Mesopotamia and Asia. The method of obtaining iron from ore was discovered in the 2nd millennium BC. e. According to one of the most likely assumptions, the cheese-making process (see below) was first used by tribes subordinate to the Hittites living in the mountains of Armenia (Antitaurus) in the 15th century. BC e. However, it still lasts. For a time, iron remained a rare and very valuable metal. Only after the 11th century. BC e. fairly widespread production of railway began. weapons and tools in Palestine, Syria, Asia, and India. At the same time, iron became famous in southern Europe. In the 11th-10th centuries. BC e. dept. zhel. objects penetrate into the region lying north of the Alps and are found in the steppes of southern Europe. parts of the USSR, but guns began to dominate in these areas only in the 8th-7th centuries. BC e. In the 8th century. BC e. zhel. products are widely distributed in Mesopotamia, Iran and somewhat later in Wed. Asia. The first news of iron in China dates back to the 8th century. BC e., but it spread only in the 5th century. BC e. Iron spread to Indochina and Indonesia at the turn of our era. Apparently, since ancient times, iron metallurgy was known to various tribes of Africa. Undoubtedly, already in the 6th century. BC e. iron was produced in Nubia, Sudan, and Libya. In the 2nd century. BC e. J.v. stepped into the center. region Africa. Some African tribes moved from Kam. century to the Iron Age, bypassing the Bronze Age. In America, Australia and most of the Pacific Islands approx. iron (except meteorite) became known only in the 2nd millennium AD. e. along with the arrival of Europeans in these areas. In contrast to the relatively rare sources of copper and especially tin, iron. ores, however, most often low-grade (brown iron ores, lake, swamp, meadow, etc.), are found almost everywhere. But it is much more difficult to obtain iron from ores than copper. Melting iron, that is, obtaining it in a liquid state, was always inaccessible to ancient metallurgists, since this required a very high temperature (1528°). Iron was obtained in a dough-like state using the cheese-blowing process, which consisted of the restoration of iron. ore with carbon at a temperature of 1100-1350° in special. furnaces with air injection by forging bellows through a nozzle. A kritsa formed at the bottom of the furnace - a lump of porous dough-like iron weighing 1-8 kg, which had to be hammered repeatedly to compact and partially remove (squeeze out) slag from it. Hot iron is soft, but in ancient times (c. 12th century BC) a method of hardening iron was discovered. products (by immersing them in cold water) and their cementation (carburization). Ready for blacksmith crafts and intended for trading. iron bars were usually exchanged in Western Asia and Western Asia. Europe bipyramidal shape. Higher mechanical quality of iron, as well as the general availability of iron. ores and the cheapness of the new metal ensured the displacement of bronze by iron, as well as stone, which remained an important material for the production of tools and bronze. century. This did not happen right away. In Europe only in the 2nd half. 1st millennium BC e. iron began to play truly creatures. role as a material for making tools. Technical The revolution caused by the spread of iron greatly expanded man's power over nature. It made it possible to clear large forest areas for crops and to expand and improve irrigation systems. and reclamation structures and overall improvement of land cultivation. The development of crafts, especially blacksmithing and weapons, is accelerating. Wood processing is being improved for the purposes of house construction, the production of vehicles (ships, chariots, etc.), and the manufacture of various utensils. Craftsmen, from shoemakers and masons to miners, also received more advanced tools. By the beginning of our era, everything was basic. types of crafts. and agricultural hand tools (except for screws and articulated scissors), used in Wed. centuries, and partly in modern times, were already in use. The construction of roads has become easier and the military has been improved. technology, exchange expanded, spread as a means of circulating metal. coin. Development produces. The forces associated with the spread of iron over time led to the transformation of entire societies. life. As a result of growth it produces. labor, the surplus product increased, which, in turn, served as an economic a prerequisite for the emergence of exploitation of man by man, the collapse of the tribal system. One of the sources of accumulation of values and growth of property. inequality was expanding during the era of housing. exchange. The possibility of enrichment through exploitation gave rise to wars for the purpose of plunder and enslavement. For the beginning J.v. characterized by a wide distribution of fortifications. During the era of housing. The tribes of Europe and Asia were experiencing the stage of disintegration of the primitive communal system and were on the eve of the emergence of classes. society and state. The transition of part of the means of production into the private property of the ruling minority, the emergence of slavery, the increased stratification of society and the separation of the tribal aristocracy from the main ones. the masses of the population are already features typical of the early classes. society In many tribal societies. the structure of this transition period took on a political so-called form military democracy. J.v. on the territory of the USSR. On the territory USSR iron first appeared in the end. 2nd millennium BC e. In Transcaucasia (Samtavrsky burial ground) and in Southern Europe. parts of the USSR (monuments of the Timber-frame culture). The development of iron in Racha (Western Georgia) dates back to ancient times. The Mossinoiks and Khalibs, who lived in the neighborhood of the Colchians, were famous as metallurgists. However, the widespread use of iron metallurgy in the region. The USSR dates back to the 1st millennium BC. e. A number of archaeological sites are known in Transcaucasia. cultures of the end of the Bronze Age, the flowering of which dates back to the early Zh. century: Central-Transcaucasian. culture with local centers in Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan, Kyzyl-Vank culture (see Kyzyl-Vank), Colchis culture, Urartian culture. To the North Caucasus: Koban culture, Kayakent-Khorochoev culture and Kuban culture. In the Northern steppes. Black Sea region in the 7th century. BC e. - first centuries AD e. lived by Scythian tribes, who created the most developed culture of the early Western century. on the territory THE USSR. Zhel. products were found in abundance in settlements and burial mounds of the Scythian period. Signs of metallurgical products were discovered during excavations of a number of Scythian settlements. The largest amount of iron residues. and blacksmith crafts were found at the Kamensky settlement (5-3 centuries BC) near Nikopol, which was apparently a center of specialists. metallurgical district of ancient Scythia. Zhel. The tools contributed to the widespread development of all kinds of crafts and the spread of arable farming among the local tribes of the Scythian period. The next period after the Scythian period was the early Zh. century. in the steppes of the Black Sea region it is represented by the Sarmatian culture, which dominated here from the 2nd century. BC e. up to 4 c. n. e. In previous times, from the 6th century. BC e. Sarmatians (or Sauromatians) lived between the Don and the Urals. By the 3rd century. n. e. One of the Sarmatian tribes - the Alans - began to play. historical the role and gradually the very name of the Sarmatians was supplanted by the name Alans. By the same time, when the Sarmatian tribes dominated the North. Black Sea region, include those that have spread to the west. regions of the North Black Sea region, Verkh. and Wed. The Dnieper and Transnistria cultures of the “burial fields” (Milograd culture, Zarubinets culture, Chernyakhov culture, etc.). These crops belonged to farmers. tribes, among which, according to some scientists, were the ancestors of the Slavs. Those who lived in the center. and sowing forest areas of Europe. parts of the USSR, tribes were familiar with iron metallurgy from the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. In the 8th-3rd centuries. BC e. In the Kama region, the Ananino culture was widespread, which was characterized by the coexistence of bronzes. and zhel. guns, with the undoubted superiority of the latter at the end of it. The Ananino culture on the Kama was replaced by the Pyanobor culture, which dates back to the 3rd century. BC e. - 5th century n. e. In Top. The Volga region and in the regions of the Volga-Oka interfluve towards the Zh. century. include the settlements of the Dyakovo culture (mid 1st millennium BC - mid 1st millennium AD), and in the territory. to the south from the middle reaches of the Oka and to the west from the Volga, in the basin. pp. Tsny and Moksha, settlements of the Gorodets culture (7th century BC - 5th century AD), belonging to the ancient Finno-Ugric tribes. In the Upper area There are numerous known areas of the Dnieper region. 6th century fortifications BC e. - 7th century n. e., belonging to the ancient Eastern Baltic tribes, later absorbed by the Slavs. The settlements of these same tribes are known in the southeast. The Baltic states, where along with them there are remnants of culture that belonged to the ancestors of the ancient Est. (Chud) tribes. In South In Siberia and Altai, due to the abundance of copper and tin, bronze developed strongly. an industry that has long successfully competed with iron. Although products apparently appeared already in the early Mayemirian time (Altai; 7th century BC), iron became widespread only in the middle. 1st millennium BC e. (Tagar culture on the Yenisei, Pazyryk culture (see Pazyryk) in Altai, etc.). Cultures Zh. v. are also represented in other parts of Siberia (in Western Siberia, research by V.N. Chernetsov and others, in the Far East, research by A.P. Okladnikov and others). On the territory Wed. Asia and Kazakhstan until the 8th-7th centuries. BC e. tools and weapons were also made of bronze. The appearance of iron products in agriculture. oases, and in the pastoral steppe can be dated back to the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. Throughout the 1st millennium BC. e. and 1st floor 1st millennium AD e. steppes Wed. Asia and Kazakhstan were populated by numerous people. Sako-Massaget tribes, in whose culture iron became widespread from the Middle Ages. 1st millennium BC e., although bronze products continued to be used among them for a long time. In agricultural In the oases, the time of the appearance of iron coincides with the emergence of the first slave owners. state (Bactria, Khorezm). On the territory Northern Europe. parts of the USSR, in the taiga and tundra regions of Siberia, iron appears in the first centuries AD. e. J.v. on the territory of the West. Europe is usually divided into 2 periods - Hallstatt (900-400 BC), which is also called. early, or first, Zh. century, and La Tène (400 BC - early AD), which is called. late, or second. The Hallstatt culture was widespread in modern territory. Austria, Yugoslavia, partly Czechoslovakia, where it was created by the ancient Illyrians, and in the territory. South Germany and the Rhine departments of France, where the Celtic tribes lived. The era of the Hallstatt culture includes the closely related cultures of the Thracian tribes in the east. parts of the Balkan Peninsula, the culture of the Etruscan, Ligurian, Italic and other tribes on the Apennine Peninsula, the culture of the beginning of the Jewish century. Iberian Peninsula (Iberians, Turdetanians, Lusitaniians, etc.) and the late Lusatian culture in the basins of pp. Oder and Vistula. The early Hallstatt era is characterized by the coexistence of bronzes. and zhel. tools and weapons and the gradual displacement of bronze. In household In respect, this era is characterized by the growth of agriculture, in social terms - by the collapse of clan relations. All in. Germany, Scandinavia, West. France and England were still in the Bronze Age at this time. From the beginning 4th century The La Tène culture is spreading, characterized by a genuine flowering of yellow. industry. La Tène culture existed until the Roman conquest of Gaul (1st century BC). The area of distribution of the La Tène culture is the land to the west from the Rhine to the Atlantic. ocean, along the middle course of the Danube and to the north of it. The La Tène culture is associated with the Celtic tribes, which had large fortifications. cities that were centers of tribes and places of concentration of various crafts. During this era, a class was gradually created among the Celts. slave owner society. Bronze tools are no longer found, but iron became most widespread in Europe during the Roman period. conquests At the beginning of our era, in the areas conquered by Rome, the La Tène culture was replaced by the so-called. provincial rome culture. Iron spread to northern Europe almost 300 years later than to the south. By the end of the European century. belongs to the german culture. tribes living in the territory between Northern M. and pp. Rhine, Danube and Elbe, as well as in the south of the Scandinavian Peninsula, and the culture of the west. Slavs, called the Przeworsk culture (3-2 centuries BC - 4-5 centuries AD). It is believed that the Przeworsk tribes were known to ancient authors under the name of the Wends. All in. countries, the complete dominance of iron came only at the beginning of our era. Lit.: Engels F., The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State, M., 1953; Artsikhovsky A.V., Introduction to Archeology, 3rd ed., M., 1947; World History, vol. 1-2, M., 1955-56; Gernes M., Culture of the Prehistoric Past, trans. from German, part 3, M., 1914; Gorodtsov V. A., Household Archeology, M., 1910; Gauthier Yu. V., The Iron Age in Eastern Europe, M.-L., 1930; Grakov B.N., The oldest finds of iron objects in the European part of the USSR, "CA", 1958, No. 4; Jessen A. A., On the issue of monuments of the VIII - VII centuries. BC e. in the South of the European part of the USSR, in collection: "CA" (vol.) 18, M., 1953; Kiselev S.V., Ancient history of Southern Siberia, (2nd ed.), M., 1951; Clark D.G.D., Prehistoric Europe. Economical essay, trans. from English, M., 1953; Krupnov E.I., Ancient history of the North Caucasus, M., 1960; Lyapushkin I.I., Monuments of the Saltovo-Mayatskaya culture in the river basin. Don, "MIA", 1958, No. 62; his, Dnieper forest-steppe left bank in the Iron Age, "MIA", 1961, No. 104; Mongait A.L., Archeology in the USSR, M., 1955; Niederle L., Slavic antiquities, trans. from Czech., M., 1956; Okladnikov A.P., The distant past of Primorye, Vladivostok, 1959; Essays on the history of the USSR. The primitive communal system and the most ancient states on the territory of the USSR, M., 1956; Monuments of Zarubintsy culture, "MIA", 1959, No. 70; Piotrovsky B.V., Archeology of Transcaucasia from ancient times to 1 thousand BC. e., L., 1949; his, Van Kingdom, M., 1959; Rudenko S.I., Culture of the population of Central Altai in Scythian times, M.-L., 1960; Smirnov A.P., Iron Age of the Chuvash Volga Region, M., 1961; Tretyakov P.N., East Slavic tribes, 2nd ed., M., 1953; Chernetsov V.N., Lower Ob region in 1 thousand AD. e., "MIA", 1957, No. 58; D?chelette J., Manuel d'arch?ologie prehistorique celtique et gallo-romaine, 2 ed., t. 3-4, P., 1927; Johannsen O., Geschichte des Eisens, Dösseldorf, 1953; Moora H., Die Eisenzeit in Lettland bis etwa 500 n. Chr., (t.) 1-2, Tartu (Dorpat), 1929-38; Redlich A., Die Minerale im Dienste der Menschheit, Bd 3 - Das Eisen, Prag, 1925; Rickard T. A., Man and metals, v. 1-2, N. Y.-L., 1932. A. L. Mongait. Moscow.
The Iron Age is a new stage in the development of mankind.
Iron Age, an era in the primitive and early class history of mankind, characterized by the spread of iron metallurgy and the manufacture of iron tools. Replaced by the Bronze Age mainly at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. The use of iron gave a powerful stimulus to the development of production and accelerated social development. In the Iron Age, the majority of the peoples of Eurasia experienced the decomposition of the primitive communal system and the transition to a class society. The idea of three centuries: stone, bronze and iron - arose in the ancient world (Titus Lucretius Carus). The term "Iron Age" was introduced into science around the mid-19th century. Danish archaeologist K. J. Thomsen. The most important studies, the initial classification and dating of Iron Age monuments in Western Europe were made by the Austrian scientist M. Görnes, the Swedish - O. Montelius and O. Oberg, the German - O. Tischler and P. Reinecke, the French - J. Dechelet, the Czech - I. Pich and Polish - J. Kostrzewski; in Eastern Europe - Russian and Soviet scientists V. A. Gorodtsov, A. A. Spitsyn, Yu. V. Gauthier, P. N. Tretyakov, A. P. Smirnov, H. A. Moora, M. I. Artamonov, B. N. Grakov and others; in Siberia - S. A. Teploukhov, S. V. Kiselev, S. I. Rudenko and others; in the Caucasus - B. A. Kuftin, A. A. Jessen, B. B. Piotrovsky, E. I. Krupnov and others; in Central Asia - S.P. Tolstov, A.N. Bernshtam, A.I. Terenozhkin and others.
The period of the initial spread of the iron industry was experienced by all countries at different times, but the Iron Age usually includes only the cultures of primitive tribes that lived outside the territories of ancient slave-owning civilizations that arose in the Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages (Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, India, China, etc. ). The Iron Age is very short compared to previous archaeological eras (Stone and Bronze Ages). Its chronological boundaries: from 9-7 centuries. BC e., when many primitive tribes of Europe and Asia developed their own iron metallurgy, and before the time when class society and the state emerged among these tribes.
Some modern foreign scientists, who consider the end of primitive history to be the time of the appearance of written sources, attribute the end of the Jewish century. Western Europe by the 1st century. BC e., when Roman written sources appear containing information about Western European tribes. Since to this day iron remains the most important metal from whose alloys tools are made, the term “early Iron Age” is also used for the archaeological periodization of primitive history. In Western Europe, only its beginning is called the Early Iron Age (the so-called Hallstatt culture).
Initially, meteorite iron became known to mankind. Individual objects made of iron (mainly jewelry) from the 1st half of the 3rd millennium BC. e. found in Egypt, Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. The method of obtaining iron from ore was discovered in the 2nd millennium BC. e. According to one of the most likely assumptions, the cheese-making process (see below) was first used by tribes subordinate to the Hittites living in the mountains of Armenia (Antitaurus) in the 15th century. BC e. However, for a long time iron remained a rare and very valuable metal. Only after the 11th century. BC e. A fairly widespread production of iron weapons and tools began in Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, Transcaucasia, and India. At the same time, iron became famous in southern Europe. 
In the 11th-10th centuries. BC e. individual iron objects penetrate into the region north of the Alps and are found in the steppes of the south of the European part of the modern territory of the USSR, but iron tools begin to predominate in these areas only from the 8th-7th centuries. BC e. In the 8th century. BC e. iron products are widely distributed in Mesopotamia, Iran and somewhat later in Central Asia. The first news of iron in China dates back to the 8th century. BC e., but it spreads only from the 5th century. BC e. In Indochina and Indonesia, iron predominates at the turn of the Common Era. Apparently, since ancient times, iron metallurgy was known to various tribes of Africa. Undoubtedly, already in the 6th century. BC e. iron was produced in Nubia, Sudan, and Libya. In the 2nd century. BC e. The Iron Age began in central Africa. Some African tribes moved from the Stone Age to the Iron Age, bypassing the Bronze Age. In America, Australia and most of the Pacific Islands, iron (except meteorite) became known only in the 16th and 17th centuries. n. e. with the arrival of Europeans in these areas.
In contrast to the relatively rare deposits of copper and especially tin, iron ores, although most often low-grade (brown iron ores), are found almost everywhere. But it is much more difficult to obtain iron from ores than copper. Melting iron was inaccessible to ancient metallurgists. Iron was obtained in a dough-like state using the cheese-blowing process, which consisted of the reduction of iron ore at a temperature of about 900-1350 ° C in special furnaces - forges with air blown by forge bellows through a nozzle. A kritsa formed at the bottom of the furnace - a lump of porous iron weighing 1-5 kg, which had to be forged to compact it and also remove slag from it.
Raw iron is a very soft metal; tools and weapons made of pure iron had low mechanical qualities. Only with the discovery in the 9-7 centuries. BC e. With the development of methods for making steel from iron and its heat treatment, the new material began to become widespread. The higher mechanical qualities of iron and steel, as well as the general availability of iron ores and the low cost of the new metal, ensured that they replaced bronze, as well as stone, which remained an important material for the production of tools in the Bronze Age. This did not happen right away. In Europe, only in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium BC. e. iron and steel began to play a truly significant role as materials for the manufacture of tools and weapons. 
The technical revolution caused by the spread of iron and steel greatly expanded man's power over nature: it became possible to clear large forest areas for crops, expand and improve irrigation and reclamation structures, and generally improve land cultivation. The development of crafts, especially blacksmithing and weapons, is accelerating. Wood processing is being improved for the purposes of house construction, the production of vehicles (ships, chariots, etc.), and the manufacture of various utensils. Craftsmen, from shoemakers and masons to miners, also received more advanced tools. By the beginning of our era, all the main types of craft and agricultural hand tools (except for screws and hinged scissors), used in the Middle Ages, and partly in modern times, were already in use. The construction of roads became easier, military equipment improved, exchange expanded, and metal coins became widespread as a means of circulation.
The development of productive forces associated with the spread of iron, over time, led to the transformation of all social life. As a result of the growth in labor productivity, the surplus product increased, which, in turn, served as an economic prerequisite for the emergence of exploitation of man by man and the collapse of the tribal primitive communal system. One of the sources of accumulation of values and growth of property inequality was the expansion of exchange during the Iron Age. The possibility of enrichment through exploitation gave rise to wars for the purpose of robbery and enslavement. At the beginning of the Iron Age, fortifications became widespread. During the Iron Age, the tribes of Europe and Asia experienced the stage of collapse of the primitive communal system, and were on the eve of the emergence of class society and the state. The transition of some means of production into the private ownership of the ruling minority, the emergence of slavery, the increased stratification of society and the separation of the tribal aristocracy from the bulk of the population are already features typical of early class societies. For many tribes, the social structure of this transition period took the political form of the so-called. military democracy. 
Iron Age on the territory of the USSR. On the modern territory of the USSR, iron first appeared at the end of the 2nd millennium BC. e. in Transcaucasia (Samtavrsky burial ground) and in the southern European part of the USSR. The development of iron in Racha (Western Georgia) dates back to ancient times. The Mossinoiks and Khalibs, who lived in the neighborhood of the Colchians, were famous as metallurgists. However, the widespread use of iron metallurgy in the USSR dates back to the 1st millennium BC. e. In Transcaucasia, a number of archaeological cultures of the late Bronze Age are known, the flourishing of which dates back to the early Iron Age: the Central Transcaucasian culture with local centers in Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan, the Kyzyl-Vank culture, the Colchis culture, the Urartian culture. In the North Caucasus: Koban culture, Kayakent-Khorochoev culture and Kuban culture.
In the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region in the 7th century. BC e. - first centuries AD e. Scythian tribes lived, creating the most developed culture of the early Iron Age on the territory of the USSR. Iron products were found in abundance in settlements and burial mounds of the Scythian period. Signs of metallurgical production were discovered during excavations of a number of Scythian settlements. The largest number of remains of ironworking and blacksmithing were found at the Kamensky settlement (5-3 centuries BC) near Nikopol, which was apparently the center of a specialized metallurgical region of ancient Scythia. Iron tools contributed to the widespread development of all kinds of crafts and the spread of arable farming among the local tribes of the Scythian period.
The next period after the Scythian period of the Early Iron Age in the steppes of the Black Sea region is represented by the Sarmatian culture, which dominated here from the 2nd century. BC e. up to 4 c. n. e. In previous times, from the 7th century. BC e. Sarmatians (or Sauromatians) lived between the Don and the Urals. In the first centuries A.D. e. one of the Sarmatian tribes - the Alans - began to play a significant historical role and gradually the very name of the Sarmatians was supplanted by the name of the Alans. At the same time, when the Sarmatian tribes dominated the Northern Black Sea region, the cultures of “burial fields” (Zarubinets culture, Chernyakhov culture, etc.) spread in the western regions of the Northern Black Sea region, the Upper and Middle Dnieper and Transnistria. These cultures belonged to agricultural tribes who knew iron metallurgy, among which, according to some scientists, were the ancestors of the Slavs. The tribes living in the central and northern forest regions of the European part of the USSR were familiar with iron metallurgy from the 6th to 5th centuries. BC e. In the 8th-3rd centuries. BC e. In the Kama region, the Ananyin culture was widespread, which was characterized by the coexistence of bronze and iron tools, with the undoubted superiority of the latter at the end of it. The Ananino culture on the Kama was replaced by the Pyanobor culture (end of the 1st millennium BC - 1st half of the 1st millennium AD).
In the Upper Volga region and in the regions of the Volga-Oka interfluve, the settlements of the Dyakovo culture date back to the Iron Age (mid-1st millennium BC - mid-1st millennium AD), and in the territory south of the middle currents of the Oka, west of the Volga, in the river basin. Tsna and Moksha are settlements of the Gorodets culture (7th century BC - 5th century AD), which belonged to the ancient Finno-Ugric tribes. Numerous 6th century settlements are known in the Upper Dnieper region. BC e. - 7th century n. e., belonging to the ancient Eastern Baltic tribes, later absorbed by the Slavs. The settlements of these same tribes are known in the south-eastern Baltic, where, along with them, there are also cultural remains that belonged to the ancestors of the ancient Estonian (Chud) tribes. 
In Southern Siberia and Altai, due to the abundance of copper and tin, the bronze industry developed strongly, successfully competing with iron for a long time. Although iron products apparently appeared already in the early Mayemirian time (Altai; 7th century BC), iron became widespread only in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. (Tagar culture on the Yenisei, Pazyryk mounds in Altai, etc.). Iron Age cultures are also represented in other parts of Siberia and the Far East. On the territory of Central Asia and Kazakhstan until the 8th-7th centuries. BC e. tools and weapons were also made of bronze. The appearance of iron products both in agricultural oases and in the pastoral steppe can be dated back to the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. Throughout the 1st millennium BC. e. and in the 1st half of the 1st millennium AD. e. The steppes of Central Asia and Kazakhstan were inhabited by numerous Sak-Usun tribes, in whose culture iron became widespread from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. In agricultural oases, the time of the appearance of iron coincides with the emergence of the first slave states (Bactria, Sogd, Khorezm). 
The Iron Age in Western Europe is usually divided into 2 periods - Hallstatt (900-400 BC), which was also called the early, or first Iron Age, and La Tène (400 BC - beginning of AD) , which is called late, or second. The Hallstatt culture was widespread in the territory of modern Austria, Yugoslavia, Northern Italy, partly Czechoslovakia, where it was created by the ancient Illyrians, and in the territory of modern Germany and the Rhine departments of France, where Celtic tribes lived. The cultures close to the Hallstatt belong to this time: the Thracian tribes in the eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula, the Etruscan, Ligurian, Italic and other tribes on the Apennine Peninsula, the early Iron Age cultures of the Iberian Peninsula (Iberians, Turdetans, Lusitanians, etc.) and the late Lusatian culture in river basins Oder and Vistula. The early Hallstatt period was characterized by the coexistence of bronze and iron tools and weapons and the gradual displacement of bronze. Economically, this era is characterized by the growth of agriculture, and socially, by the collapse of clan relations. In the north of modern Germany, Scandinavia, Western France and England, the Bronze Age still existed at this time. From the beginning of the 5th century. The La Tène culture spreads, characterized by a genuine flourishing of the iron industry. The La Tène culture existed before the Roman conquest of Gaul (1st century BC), the area of distribution of the La Tène culture is the land west of the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean along the middle course of the Danube and north of it. La Tène culture is associated with the Celtic tribes, who had large fortified cities that were centers of tribes and places of concentration of various crafts. During this era, the Celts gradually created a class slave-owning society. Bronze tools are no longer found, but iron became most widespread in Europe during the period of the Roman conquests. At the beginning of our era, in the areas conquered by Rome, the La Tène culture was replaced by the so-called. provincial Roman culture. In northern Europe, iron spread almost 300 years later than in the south. The culture of the Germanic tribes that lived in the territory between the North Sea and the river dates back to the end of the Iron Age. Rhine, Danube and Elbe, as well as in the south of the Scandinavian Peninsula, and archaeological cultures, the bearers of which are considered the ancestors of the Slavs. In the northern countries, the complete dominance of iron came only at the beginning of our era.
IRON AGE - an era in the primitive and early class history of mankind, characterized by the spread of iron metallurgy and the manufacture of iron tools. The idea of three centuries: stone, bronze and iron - arose in the ancient world (Titus Lucretius Carus). The term "Iron Age" was coined around the mid-19th century by the Danish archaeologist K. J. Thomsen. The most important studies, initial classification and dating of Iron Age monuments in Western Europe were carried out by M. Görnes, O. Montelius, O. Tischler, M. Reinecke, J. Dechelet, N. Oberg, J. L. Pietsch and J. Kostrzewski; in East Europe - V. A. Gorodtsov, A. A. Spitsyn, Yu. V. Gauthier, P. N. Tretyakov, A. P. Smirnov, Kh. A. Moora, M. I. Artamonov, B. N. Grakov and etc.; in Siberia - S. A. Teploukhov, S. V. Kiselev, S. I. Rudenko and others; in the Caucasus - B. A. Kuftin, B. B. Piotrovsky, E. I. Krupnov and others.
The period of initial spread of the iron industry was experienced by all countries at different times, but the Iron Age usually refers only to the cultures of primitive tribes that lived outside the territories of ancient slave-owning civilizations that arose in the Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages (Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, India, China). The Iron Age is very short compared to previous archaeological eras (Stone and Bronze Ages). Its chronological boundaries: from 9-7 centuries BC. e., when many primitive tribes of Europe and Asia developed their own iron metallurgy, and before the emergence of a class society and state among these tribes. Some modern foreign scientists, who consider the time of the appearance of written sources to be the end of primitive history, attribute the end of the Iron Age of Western Europe to the 1st century BC. e., when Roman written sources appear containing information about Western European tribes. Since to this day iron remains the most important material from which tools are made, the modern era is entering the Iron Age, therefore the term “early Iron Age” is also used for the archaeological periodization of primitive history. In Western Europe, only its beginning is called the Early Iron Age (the so-called Hallstatt culture). Despite the fact that iron is the most common metal in the world, it was developed late by man, since it is almost never found in nature in its pure form, is difficult to process, and its ores are difficult to distinguish from various minerals. Initially, meteorite iron became known to mankind. Small iron objects (mainly jewelry) are found in the 1st half of the 3rd millennium BC. e. in Egypt, Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. The method of obtaining iron from ore was discovered in the 2nd millennium BC. e. According to one of the most likely assumptions, the cheese-making process (see below) was first used by tribes subordinate to the Hittites living in the mountains of Armenia (Antitaurus) in the 15th century BC. e. However, for a long time iron remained a rare and very valuable metal. Only after the 11th century BC. e. Quite a wide production of iron weapons and tools began in Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, and India. At the same time, iron became famous in southern Europe. In the 11th-10th centuries BC. e. individual iron objects penetrate into the region lying north of the Alps and are found in the steppes of the south of the European part of the USSR, but iron tools begin to dominate in these areas only in the 8-7 centuries BC. e. In the 8th century BC. e. iron products are widely distributed in Mesopotamia, Iran and somewhat later in Central Asia. The first news of iron in China dates back to the 8th century BC. e., but it spread only in the 5th century BC. e. Iron spread to Indochina and Indonesia at the turn of our era. Apparently, since ancient times, iron metallurgy was known to various tribes of Africa. Undoubtedly, already in the 6th century BC. e. iron was produced in Nubia, Sudan, and Libya. In the 2nd century BC. e. The Iron Age began in central Africa. Some African tribes moved from the Stone Age to the Iron Age, bypassing the Bronze Age. In America, Australia and most of the Pacific Islands, iron (except meteorite) became known only in the 2nd millennium AD. e. along with the arrival of Europeans in these areas.
In contrast to the relatively rare sources of copper and especially tin, iron ores, although most often low-grade (brown iron ores, lake ores, swamps, meadows, etc.), are found almost everywhere. But it is much more difficult to obtain iron from ores than copper. Melting iron, that is, obtaining it in a liquid state, was always inaccessible to ancient metallurgists, since this required a very high temperature (1528°). Iron was obtained in a dough-like state using the cheese-blowing process, which consisted of the reduction of iron ore with carbon at a temperature of 1100-1350° in special furnaces with air blown by forging bellows through a nozzle. A kritsa was formed at the bottom of the furnace - a lump of porous dough-like iron weighing 1-8 kg, which had to be hammered repeatedly to compact and partially remove (squeeze out) the slag from it. Hot iron is soft, but in ancient times (about the 12th century BC) a method was discovered for hardening iron products (by immersing them in cold water) and their cementation (carburizing). Iron bars ready for blacksmithing and intended for trade exchange usually had a bipyramidal shape in Western Asia and Western Europe. The higher mechanical qualities of iron, as well as the general availability of iron ore and the low cost of the new metal, ensured the displacement of bronze by iron, as well as stone, which remained an important material for the production of tools in the Bronze Age. This did not happen right away. In Europe, only in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium BC. e. iron began to play a truly significant role as a material for making tools. The technical revolution caused by the spread of iron greatly expanded man's power over nature. It made it possible to clear large forest areas for crops, expand and improve irrigation and reclamation structures, and generally improve land cultivation. The development of crafts, especially blacksmithing and weapons, is accelerating. Wood processing is being improved for the purposes of house construction, the production of vehicles (ships, chariots, etc.), and the manufacture of various utensils. Craftsmen, from shoemakers and masons to miners, also received more advanced tools. By the beginning of our era, all the main types of handicraft and agricultural hand tools (except for screws and hinged scissors), used in the Middle Ages, and partly in modern times, were already in use. The construction of roads became easier, military equipment improved, exchange expanded, and metal coins became widespread as a means of circulation.
The development of productive forces associated with the spread of iron, over time, led to the transformation of all social life. As a result of the growth of productive labor, the surplus product increased, which, in turn, served as an economic prerequisite for the emergence of exploitation of man by man and the collapse of the tribal system. One of the sources of accumulation of values and growth of property inequality was the expansion of exchange during the Iron Age. The possibility of enrichment through exploitation gave rise to wars for the purpose of plunder and enslavement. The beginning of the Iron Age was characterized by widespread fortifications. During the Iron Age, the tribes of Europe and Asia experienced the stage of decomposition of the primitive communal system, and were on the eve of the emergence of class society and the state. The transition of part of the means of production into the private ownership of the ruling minority, the emergence of slavery, the increased stratification of society and the separation of the tribal aristocracy from the bulk of the population are already features typical of early class societies. For many tribes, the social structure of this transitional period took the political form of the so-called military democracy.
A. L. Mongait. Moscow.
Soviet historical encyclopedia. In 16 volumes. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1973-1982. Volume 5. DVINSK - INDONESIA. 1964.
Literature:
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The Iron Age is a period in human history characterized by the spread of iron processing and smelting, and the production of iron tools and weapons. The Iron Age gave way to the Bronze Age at the beginning of the first millennium BC.
The idea of three centuries: stone, bronze and iron arose in ancient times. This is well described by Titus Lucretius Cara in his philosophical poem “On the Nature of Things,” in which the progress of mankind is seen in the development of metallurgy. The term Iron Age was coined in the 19th century by the Danish archaeologist K.J. Thomsen.
Although iron is the most common metal, it was late mastered by mankind, due to the fact that in nature, in its pure form, iron is difficult to distinguish from other minerals, in addition, iron has a higher melting point than bronze. Before the discovery of methods for producing steel from iron and its heat treatment, iron was inferior in strength and anti-corrosion qualities to bronze.
Iron was originally used to make jewelry and was smelted from meteorites. The first iron products were discovered in Egypt and Northern Iraq; they were dated to the third millennium BC. According to one of the most probable hypotheses, the smelting of iron from ores was discovered by the Khalib tribe who lived in Asia Minor in the 15th century BC. However, iron remained a very valuable and rare metal for a very long time.
The rapid spread of iron and its displacement of bronze and stone as a material for the production of tools was facilitated by: firstly, the widespread occurrence of iron in nature and its lower cost compared to bronze; secondly, the discovery of methods for producing steel made iron tools better than bronze ones.
The Iron Age came to regions of the world at different times. Initially in the 12th-11th centuries BC, iron production spread to Asia Minor, the Middle East, Mesopotamia, Iran, Transcaucasia and India. In the 9th-7th centuries BC, the production of iron tools spread among the primitive tribes of Europe, starting from the 8th-7th century BC. The production of iron tools spreads to the European part of Russia. In China and the Far East, the Iron Age begins in the 8th century BC. In Egypt and North Africa, the production of iron tools spread in the 7th and 6th centuries BC.
In the 2nd century. BC e. The Iron Age came to the tribes inhabiting Central Africa. Some primitive tribes of Central and Southern Africa moved from the Stone Age to the Iron Age, bypassing the Bronze Age. America, Australia, New Zealand and Oceania saw iron (except meteorite) only in the 16th-17th centuries AD when representatives of European civilization appeared in these areas.
The spread of iron tools led to a technical revolution in human society. The power of man in his fight against the elements increased, the impact of people on nature increased, the introduction of iron tools made the work of farmers easier, it became possible to clear large forest areas for fields, contributed to the improvement of irrigation structures and generally improved the technology of land cultivation. The technology of processing wood and stone is being improved for the construction of houses, defensive structures and vehicles (ships, chariots, carts, etc.). Military affairs have improved. Craftsmen received more advanced tools, which contributed to the improvement and acceleration of the development of crafts. Trade relations expanded, the decomposition of the primitive communal system accelerated, which contributed to the acceleration of the transition to a class-slave society.
Due to the fact that iron is still an important material in the production of tools, the modern period of history is included in the Iron Age.
An abundance of secrets is hidden in world history, and until now researchers have not given up hope of discovering something new in known facts. Moments seem exciting and unusual when you realize that once upon a time, on the same lands that we now walk on, dinosaurs lived, knights fought, camps were set up. World history bases its periodization on two principles that are relevant for the formation of the human race - material for the production of tools and manufacturing technology. In accordance with these principles, the concepts of “Stone Age”, “Bronze Age”, and “Iron” Age appeared. Each of these periodizations became a step in the development of humanity, the next round of evolution and knowledge of human capabilities. Naturally, there were no absolutely passive moments in history. From ancient times to the present day, knowledge has been regularly updated and new ways of obtaining useful materials have been developed.
World history and the first methods of dating time periods
Natural sciences have become a tool for dating periods of time. In particular, one can cite the radiocarbon method, geological dating, and dendrochronology. The rapid development of ancient man made it possible to improve existing technologies. Approximately 5 thousand years ago, when the written period began, other prerequisites for dating arose, based on the time of existence of various states and civilizations. It is tentatively believed that the period of separation of man from the animal world began about two million years ago, until the fall of the Western Roman Empire, which happened in 476 AD, the period of Antiquity continued. Before the Renaissance began, there were the Middle Ages. Until the end of the First World War, the period of New History lasted, and now the time has come for New History. Historians of different times set their own “anchors” of reference, for example, Herodotus paid special attention to the struggle between Asia and Europe. Scientists of a later period considered the establishment of the Roman Republic to be the main event in the development of civilization. Many historians agree that for the Iron Age, culture and art were not of great importance, since the tools of war and labor came first.
Background of the metal era
In primitive history, the Stone Age is distinguished, including the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic. Each period is marked by the development of man and his innovations in stone processing. At first, the most widely used tool was the hand ax. Later, tools appeared from elements of stone, rather than from a whole nodule. This period saw the development of fire, the creation of the first clothing from skins, the first religious cults and the development of housing. During the period of man's semi-nomadic lifestyle and hunting of large animals, more advanced weapons were required. A further round of development of stone processing technologies occurred at the turn of the millennium and the end of the Stone Age, when agriculture and cattle breeding spread, and ceramic production appeared. During the metal era, copper and its processing technologies were mastered. The beginning of the Iron Age laid the foundation for work for the future. The study of the properties of metals consistently led to the discovery of bronze and its spread. The Stone, Bronze, Iron Ages are a single harmonious process of human development, based on mass movements of peoples.
Actual data on the duration of the era
The spread of iron dates back to the primitive and early class history of mankind. Characteristic features of the period were trends in metallurgy and the production of tools. Even in the ancient world, the idea of classifying centuries according to material was formed. The Early Iron Age has been studied and continues to be studied by scientists in a variety of fields. In Western Europe, voluminous works were published
Görnes, Montelius, Tischler, Reinecke, Kostrzewski, etc. In Eastern Europe, corresponding textbooks, monographs and maps were published by Gorodtsov, Spitsyn, Gautier, Tretyakov, Smirnov, Artamonov, Grakov. The spread of iron is often considered a characteristic feature of tribes living outside civilizations. In fact, all countries at one time experienced the Iron Age. The Bronze Age was only a prerequisite. It has not occupied such a vast time in history. Chronologically, the Iron Age period spans from the 9th to the 7th centuries BC. At this time, many tribes of Europe and Asia received an impetus for the development of their own iron metallurgy. Since this metal remains the most important material for production, modernity is part of this century.
Culture of the period
The development of production and the spread of iron quite logically led to the modernization of culture and all social life. Economic prerequisites for working relationships and the collapse of the tribal way of life appeared. Ancient history marks the accumulation of values, the growth of property inequality and the mutually beneficial exchange of parties. Fortifications spread widely, and the formation of a class society and state began. More wealth became the private property of a select few, slavery arose and the stratification of society progressed.
How did the metal age manifest itself in the USSR?
At the end of the second millennium BC, iron appeared on the territory of the Union. Among the most ancient mining sites are Western Georgia and Transcaucasia. Monuments of the Early Iron Age have been preserved in the southern European part of the USSR. But metallurgy here gained mass popularity in the first millennium BC, which is confirmed by a number of archaeological artifacts made of bronze in Transcaucasia, cultural relics of the North Caucasus and the Black Sea region, etc. During excavations of Scythian settlements, priceless monuments of the early Iron Age were discovered. The finds were made at the Kamensky settlement near Nikopol.
History of materials in Kazakhstan
Historically, the Iron Age is divided into two periods. These are the early, which lasted from the 8th to the 3rd century BC, and the late, which lasted from the 3rd century BC to the 6th century AD. Each country has a period of iron proliferation in its history, but the features of this process greatly depend on the region. Thus, the Iron Age on the territory of Kazakhstan was marked by events in three main regions. Cattle breeding and irrigated agriculture are common in Southern Kazakhstan. Climatic conditions did not allow for farming. And Northern, Eastern and Central Kazakhstan were inhabited by people adapted to harsh winters. These three regions, radically different in living conditions, became the basis for the creation of three Kazakh zhuzes. Southern Kazakhstan became the place of formation of the Senior Zhuz. The lands of Northern, Eastern and Central Kazakhstan became a refuge. Western Kazakhstan is represented by the Junior Zhuz.
Iron Age in Central Kazakhstan
The endless steppes of Central Asia have long been a place of residence for nomads. Here ancient history is represented by burial mounds, which are priceless monuments of the Iron Age. Especially often in the region there were mounds with paintings or “mustaches”, which, according to scientists, performed the functions of a beacon and compass in the steppe. The Tasmolin culture, named after the area in the Pavlodar region, where the first excavations of a man and a horse in a large and small mound were recorded, attracts the attention of historians. Archaeologists of Kazakhstan consider the mounds of the Tasmolin culture to be the most widespread monuments of the Early Iron Age.
Features of the culture of Northern Kazakhstan
This region is distinguished by the presence of cattle. Local residents switched from farming to sedentary life and the Tasmolin culture is revered in this region. The attention of researchers of early Iron Age monuments is attracted by the mounds of Birlik, Alypkash, Bekteniz and three settlements: Karlyga, Borki and Kenotkel. On the right bank of the Yesil River, an early Iron Age fortification has been preserved. The art of melting and processing non-ferrous metals was developed here. The produced metal products were transported to Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Kazakhstan was several centuries ahead of its neighbors in the development of ancient metallurgy and therefore became a communicator between the metallurgical centers of its country, Siberia and Eastern Europe.
"Guarding the Gold"
The majestic mounds of Eastern Kazakhstan are mainly concentrated in the Shilikta Valley. There are more than fifty of them here. In 1960, a study was conducted of the largest of the mounds, which is called Golden. This unique monument to the Iron Age was erected in the 8-9 centuries BC. The Zaysan region of Eastern Kazakhstan allows you to explore more than two hundred of the largest mounds, of which 50 are called Tsarsky and may contain gold. In the Shilikta Valley there is the oldest royal burial on the soil of Kazakhstan from the 8th century BC, which was discovered by Professor Toleubaev. Among archaeologists, this discovery caused a stir, just like the third “golden man” of Kazakhstan. The buried person was wearing clothes decorated with 4325 gold figured plates. The most interesting find is a pentagonal star with lapis lazuli rays. Such an object symbolizes power and greatness. This became further proof that Shilikty, Besshatyr, Issyk, Berel, Boraldai are sacred places for ritual rites, sacrifices and prayers.
Early Iron Age in nomadic culture
Not much documentary evidence has survived about the ancient culture of Kazakhstan. Mostly information is obtained from excavations. Much has been said about nomads regarding the art of song and dance. Separately, it is worth noting the skill in making ceramic vessels and painting on silver bowls. The spread of iron in everyday life and production became the impetus for the improvement of a unique heating system: a chimney, which was laid horizontally along the wall, evenly heated the entire house. Nomads invented many things that are familiar to us today, both for domestic use and for use in wartime. They came up with pants, stirrups, a yurt and a curved saber. Metal armor was developed to protect horses. The protection of the warrior himself was provided by iron armor.
Achievements and discoveries of the period
The Iron Age became third in line after the Stone and Bronze Ages. But in terms of importance, it is undoubtedly considered the first. Until modern times, iron remained the material basis of all human inventions. All important discoveries in the field of production are associated with its application. This metal has a higher melting point compared to copper. Natural iron does not exist in its pure form, and it is very difficult to carry out the smelting process from ore due to its refractoriness. This metal caused global changes in the life of the steppe tribes. Compared to previous archaeological eras, the Iron Age is the shortest, but the most productive. Initially, humanity recognized meteorite iron. Some original products and jewelry made from it were found in Egypt, Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. Chronologically, these relics can be dated back to the first half of the third millennium BC. In the second millennium BC, the technology for producing iron from ore was developed, but for quite a long time this metal was considered rare and expensive.
Widespread production of weapons and iron tools began in Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, Transcaucasia and India. The spread of this metal, as well as steel, provoked a technical revolution that expanded human power over nature. Clearing large forest areas for crops has now become easier. The modernization of labor tools and the improvement of land cultivation were promptly carried out. Accordingly, new crafts were quickly learned, especially blacksmithing and weapons. Shoemakers, who received more advanced tools, were not left out. Masons and miners began to work more efficiently.
Summarizing the results of the Iron Age, it can be noted that by the beginning of our era all the main types of hand tools were already in use (with the exception of screws and hinged scissors). Thanks to the use of iron in production, the construction of roads became much easier, military technology advanced a step forward, and metal coins came into circulation. The Iron Age accelerated and provoked the collapse of the primitive communal system, as well as the formation of a class society and statehood. Many communities during this period adhered to the so-called
Possible development paths
It is worth noting that it existed in small quantities in Egypt, but the spread of the metal became possible with the beginning of ore smelting. Initially, iron was smelted only when the need arose. Thus, fragments of metal inclusions were found in monuments in Syria and Iraq, which were erected no later than 2700 BC. But after the 11th century BC, the blacksmiths of Eastern Anatolia learned the science of systematically making objects from iron. The secrets and subtleties of the new science were kept secret and passed on from generation to generation. The first historical finds confirming the widespread use of metal for making tools were recorded in Israel, namely in Gerar near Gaza. A huge number of hoes, sickles and iron openers dating from after 1200 BC were found here. Melting furnaces were also discovered at the excavation sites.
Special metal processing technologies belong to the masters of Western Asia, from whom they were borrowed by the masters of Greece, Italy and the rest of Europe. The British technological revolution can be attributed to the period after 700 BC, and there it began and developed very smoothly. Egypt and North Africa showed interest in developing the metal around the same time, with the skills then transferred to the south. Chinese craftsmen almost completely abandoned bronze, preferring turned iron. European colonists brought their knowledge of metalworking technology to Australia and the New World. After the invention of bellows, iron casting became widespread on a mass scale. Cast iron became an indispensable material for creating all kinds of household utensils and military equipment, which was a productive impetus for the development of metallurgy.