Pedagogical system of I. Pestalozzi. Basic ideas of I. G. Pestalozzi Works of Pestalozzi

Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi made a huge contribution to the development of preschool pedagogy. Already in his youth, he strived to selflessly serve the people. In 1774, he opened an orphanage for children from poor families, where he himself taught them reading, counting and writing, and also educated them. It was assumed that the educational institution would be supported by money earned by the students themselves, who worked in the fields, on spinning and weaving looms. Thus, the teacher made attempts to combine children's education with productive work. However, in order to maintain the orphanage, enormous physical exertion was required from the children, and Pestalozzi, being a humanist and democrat, could not allow the exploitation of his pupils. He viewed work as a means of developing physical strength and wanted to give children versatile labor training. This was Pestalozzi’s most important teaching experience, and after it he devoted the next eighteen years to literary activity.

Teacher's views and ideas were undoubtedly democratic in nature, but were historically limited. Pestalozzi's Basic Principles:
- the principle of the self-worth of the individual, which denied the possibility of sacrificing the individual even for the good of society;
- the principle of conformity with nature, which implies the development of the physical and spiritual capabilities of the child, inherent in him by nature, through education;
- the principle of clarity, promoting the all-round development of the child.

The most important means of educating Pestalozzi considered the teacher’s love for children. The educational influence of the teacher’s personality is of primary importance for the child. Based on these principles, Pestalozzi built a methodology for elementary teaching. “Elementary education” assumed the construction of the learning process in such a way that in the process of cognition of an object, children highlight the simplest elements, moving forward in learning from simple to complex, rising from one level to another, improving more and more knowledge and skills.

Works of Pestalozzi played a huge role in the development of pedagogy as a science. He laid the foundations of the methods of primary education. His textbooks became for a long time a model and indicator for the creativity of subsequent teachers. The speech development exercises he developed are used in elementary school practice. His idea of ​​building the educational process on the basis of mutual love between the teacher and the child became central to humanistic pedagogy.

Pestalozzi's statements about children:

• A child is a mirror of the actions of his parents.

• Nature has placed in the mother's heart the first and most urgent concern for maintaining peace in the earliest period of a child's life. This care manifests itself in people everywhere in the form of a mother's inherent maternal strength and maternal devotion.

• The hour of a child's birth is the first hour of his education.

• A child is loved and believed before he begins to think and act.

• The initial principles and points of contact with what a child should learn at school are prepared and exist in him thanks to knowledge gleaned from observations in home life.

• I try to introduce children into the thick of life and explain to them how any individual good trait of a person, if it remains isolated and does not find support for itself in all that is good that is in human nature, each time risks getting lost again in a person or receiving such a direction, which can equally easily lead to both his downfall and his improvement.

• One should not strive to turn children into adults early; it is necessary that they gradually develop in accordance with the situation and circumstances that await them, so that they learn to bear the burden of life easily and be happy at the same time.

• In general, it is necessary to achieve a situation in which it would be impossible for the child to win anything by lying; on the contrary, being caught in a lie must pose a significant danger to him.

Pestalozzi's pedagogical ideas in quotes:

• Education and only education is the goal of school.

• My first principle is that we can only raise a child well to the extent that we know what he feels, what he is capable of, what he wants.

• Primary education is capable of promoting and encouraging the natural course of development of thinking abilities through its art.

• The school must instill in its pupils such logical thinking skills that would be in harmony with human nature itself.

• Fathers and mothers still believe in holy innocence that if children attend school and are in it, then they are developing both physically and morally.

• The teaching of scientific disciplines presupposes, therefore, a preliminary enjoyment of the freedom which it limits, just as the harnessing of an adult animal to a plow or cart is a voluntary exercise of those powers which the young animal acquired and developed during the period when it lived and roamed freely in the pasture. .

• There is no doubt that only one mother is able to lay the correct sensory foundation for a person’s upbringing. Her real actions, to which she is prompted only by bare instinct, are, in essence, correct, natural means of moral education.

• Every good upbringing requires that the mother's eye at home, daily and hourly, unmistakably read in the eyes, lips and brow of the child every change in his state of mind. It essentially requires that the power of the educator be the power of the father, animated by the presence of the totality of family relations.

• The nature of my means of intellectual education is in no way arbitrary, it is necessary. Since these means are good only insofar as they are determined by the very essence of human nature, they are also basically unchanged.

Philosophical thoughts of Pestalozzi:

• ...it was a misfortune, and not our fault, that we were brought up not to do good, but only to dream about it.

• I lived for years in the circle of more than fifty beggar children, I shared my bread with them in poverty, I myself lived like a beggar in order to teach the beggars to live like humans.

• We know what we want.

• To change people, you need to love them. The influence on them is proportional to the love for them.

• According to the laws of nature, words of love are not spoken before feelings mature.

• In the country there is blind trust of the people in schools, whatever they are.

• The essence of humanity develops only in the presence of peace. Without it, love loses all the power of its truth and beneficial influence.

• Anxiety is essentially a product of sensual suffering or sensual desires; it is the child of cruel need or even more cruel egoism.

• Mental development and the culture of mankind that depends on it require constant improvement of the logical means of art for the purpose of nature-conforming development of our mental abilities, our abilities for research and judgment, to the awareness and use of which the human race has risen for a long time.

• Morality lies in the perfect knowledge of good, in the perfect ability and desire to do good.

• Each of us is completely free, and only as free people do we live, love with active love and sacrifice ourselves to fulfill our goal.

• The eye wants to look, the ear wants to hear, the foot wants to walk, and the hand wants to grab. But the heart also wants to believe and love. The mind wants to think. In any inclination of human nature there is a natural desire to emerge from a state of lifelessness and ineptitude and become a developed force, which in an undeveloped state is inherent in us only in the form of its embryo, and not the force itself.

• Man's ability to perceive truth and justice is essentially a comprehensive, sublime, pure inclination, which can find nourishment in simple, laconic, but broad views, aspirations and feelings.

• The three forces together - the ability to observe, the ability to speak and the ability to think - should be considered the totality of all the means of developing mental powers.

• A significant number of people receive education not through the assimilation of abstract concepts, but through intuition, not through the brilliance of deceptive verbal truths, but through the stable truth inherent in the acting forces.

• True nature-conforming education, by its very essence, evokes the desire for perfection, the desire for the improvement of human powers.

• Man himself develops the foundations of his moral life - love and faith, in accordance with nature, if only he demonstrates them in practice. Man himself develops the foundations of his mental powers, his thinking, in accordance with nature, only through the very action of thinking.

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Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746 – 1827). Pestalozzi is not a philosopher, he is a philosophizing teacher, in the field of pedagogy and philosophy he follows Kant. In my youth I read Emil. Pestalozzi organized a school for orphans, but the school was so well organized that all educated secular people went to this orphanage “on excursions”; Nicholas I also visited the Pestalozzi shelter. Pestalozzi began writing novels about his teaching activities => “ Lingard and Gertrude, a book for the people" (1781), "How Gertrude teaches her children" , "A swan song" .

Comenius builds a pedagogical system in line with the general system of knowledge (pansophia). Pestalozzi's pedagogical system focused only on education and training. Pestalozzi's main ideas:

1. The goal of education is true humanity.

2. The principle of conformity with nature: the course of nature = the methodological basis of education.

An ideal person(the one who embodied the principle of true humanity) must have: 1) a developed mind; 2) elevated feelings (good manners); 3) developed ability to act.

Possessing only one of these features may not. recognized as an ideal person. Upbringing - “the dressing of each individual link in the great chain through which one humanity is formed”. In understanding the purpose of education, Pestalozzi repeats Kant; the goal of education is the creation of true humanity, i.e. human improvement. It is impossible to educate a person in isolation, => all of humanity must be improved. => A person must perceive all the best that exists in humanity, because... he is his son + a person must give the best of himself to humanity, which is the father of the individual person.

Pestalozzi's important discovery: “ The best educational environment is a family atmosphere "(came to this from my practice of raising orphans in an orphanage). “Lingard and Gertrude” is a story about how a simple, intelligent and respected peasant woman in her village, skillfully raising her children, convinced her fellow villagers to open a school in the village. From vague and ardent dreams, Pestalozzi moves on to the harsh prose of life: “it is possible to plug the hole from which the people’s misfortunes flow” only when the level of education of the people rises. But since the people have neither the means nor the strength to equip a large number of schools, education, according to Pestalozzi, should be transferred to mothers. To facilitate this task, mothers must be provided with special guidance, which was written by Pestalozzi. The feeling of family is a natural feeling (parents always love their children) => under the influence of parental love, the child develops an elevated, respectful attitude towards the world. When a child grows up without love, he perceives reality distorted; the child becomes mentally callous, insensitive, and becomes like an animal. Thus, the influence of family and nepotism is a condition of any upbringing. Pestalozzi is against the early separation of a child from his family and his early placement in an educational institution.

The general principle that determines the method of education is “the principle of harmony with nature” (natural conformity): all people by nature have an urge for initiative and self-development. For Comenius, nature is the external environment, a necessity for human existence. For Pestalozzi, nature is the internal psychophysiological forces of a person, which are characterized by an impulse for self-development. Pestalozzi called, following Rousseau, to return in education to “high and simple conformity with nature.” However, he placed different emphasis on the relationship between biological and social factors of upbringing, putting forward the thesis “life shapes.” Education was viewed as a diverse social process, and it was argued that “circumstances shape a person, but a person also shapes circumstances. A person has the power to bend them in various ways according to his will. By doing this, he himself takes part in the formation of himself and in the influence of circumstances acting on him". Characteristics of the principle of nature-conformity education:

1. Spontaneity: Education must come from a person's own strength.

2. The method of education must demonstrate the general law of self-development of the human spirit according to the laws of human nature.

3. Contemplation is not sensory comprehension, but the discovery of an idea originally inherent in a person (this is the activity of the mind, which creates and shapes the world). Man must make his own efforts to discover his true nature and develop it.

4. Balance of power. The principle of harmonious development of human powers (mind, feelings and activity must be equally developed).

5. The public. Education is possible only in a group, in a team.

Children need to be accustomed to practical work in parallel with the formation of virtues + develop the qualities needed in the age of capitalism: accuracy, prudence, accuracy, decency. The ideal teacher is Gertrude. An example of her teaching: she teaches girls to embroider + at the same time tells them the history of embroidery, chemistry (needed for the production of threads) + geography (a story about the plants from which the threads are made), etc. Labor is a personality-developing source of education (Gertrude’s children seem to be day laborers , but their souls will not earn money). Independence of the soul from work is achieved through growth in work. Kunstbildung. Practical skills you will need in life. And other qualities - accuracy, decency, prudence, frugality. We need to teach children how to work, and while working, warm the children’s hearts and develop their minds. The main thing is not know-it-all, but an inner core, which is why he pays such attention to self-education. As a result, Pestalozzi emphasizes both the importance of the child’s education by the teacher, and the child’s self-education and self-development.

The principle of active visibility= intuition = internal activity of the student’s thinking in the process of learning the subject. The goal is mastery of the method, the ability to generate new knowledge. The teacher’s task is to give the student a “thread” and give his thoughts a certain direction. "How Gertrude Teaches Her Children". The basis of education should be human nature. In the mental life of a person, Pestalozzi notices five “physical-mechanical” laws: the law of gradualness and consistency, the law of connectivity, the law of joint sensations, the law of causality and the law of mental originality. These laws must be applied to education and training - and they are satisfied only by clarity, since in the mental life of a person concepts develop from sensations and ideas. If they have no idea about this lining, then they are empty and useless. Visibility is achieved by the participation of all external senses in the acquisition and assimilation of knowledge. The assimilation of knowledge reveals a threefold ability in a person: the ability to obtain an image that corresponds to a sensation, the ability to isolate it from a whole mass of images, and the ability to give it a certain symbol. Therefore, the basis of all assimilation, and therefore of learning, must be considered form, number and word.

By implementing his pedagogical theory, Pestalozzi developed elemental education method. The essence of the method was to awaken the inclinations of abilities that, in his opinion, are inherent in every child. Pestalozzi divided the pedagogical process into its simplest elements. He defined number, form, language as the primary elements of mental education; the child’s relationship with his mother, a sense of harmony, orderliness, beauty - as elements of moral education; a series of interconnected simple body movements, the ability to hit, throw, etc. - as elements of physical and labor education, etc. Pestalozzi proposed making these elements the fundamental basis for the versatile development of the individual.

Elements are a kind of “bricks” from which, according to Pestalozzi, education is made up. The number of "bricks" is gradually increasing. Thus, with moral education, the circle of children's love gradually expands: parents, brothers and sisters, teacher, schoolmates, etc. Speaking about elemental moral education, Pestalozzi wrote: “ All elementary moral education generally rests on three foundations: to develop, with the help of pure feelings, a good moral state; exercise morality in just and good deeds, overcoming oneself and making efforts; and finally, to form moral views through reflection and comparison of the legal and moral conditions in which the child finds himself..."

Gymnastic exercises to develop joints during natural movements (walking, running, lifting weights, etc.) were proposed as “building blocks” of elemental physical and labor education.

The elemental education method is a specific system for developing abilities and exercises. The method assumed a view of the everyday as something unknown and curious, i.e. it was planned to encourage children's ability to be surprised by the world and learn about it. The method assumed the independence of the students. Students, first together with the teacher, and then themselves, must develop their physical strengths and abilities.

The most important and fundamental pedagogical idea of ​​the great Swiss educator is comprehensive harmonious development of personality in the process of training and education. This is the goal of any educational institution; achieving this goal involves ensuring the unity of mental, moral and physical development and preparation for work. I.G. Pestalozzi identifies and characterizes the components of education:

1. Intellectual elementary education, the purpose of which is the comprehensive development of mental inclinations, independent judgment and mastery of intellectual work skills.

2. Elementary physical education is the comprehensive development of a person’s physical inclinations, which is necessary for “physical independence” and mastery of “physical skills.”

3. Elementary moral education, the purpose of which is the comprehensive development of moral inclinations necessary to “ensure the independence of moral judgments and instill certain moral skills.” It presupposes the ability and desire to do good.

Only the unity of all parts of education ensures the harmonious development of human natural inclinations, one-sided mental or physical development only brings harm. Thus, a person can appear to the world as a beacon of science and at the same time do evil, have “unbridled power of intellect” combined with heartlessness, a thirst for wealth and a desire for violence.

Also, all human claims to high morality, if its source is not love for people, faith, nobility, do not represent true morality, but turn out to be only hypocrisy. Even more terrible are people who have an “animal will to violence”, who achieve everything in the world in the name of their own greedy interests; these are “moral predators”. They generate a mass of “moral donkeys”, incapable of any action, limited by impotent benevolence.

The harmonious development of all natural human forces presupposes education in balance, in harmony with oneself.

The idea of ​​conformity to nature in teaching and upbringing in the understanding of I.G. Pestalozzi is the development of “the strengths and inclinations of the human heart, the human mind and human skills.” Human nature itself determines the natural course of development. Indeed, what captures a person is natural, acting “together on the heart, mind and hand.”

Each of these natural forces develops through the exercise of the “external senses”, body organs, and acts of thinking. The need for exercise is inherent in the person himself. “The eye wants to look, the ear wants to hear, the foot wants to walk, and the hand wants to grab. But also the heart - to believe and love. The mind wants to think,” writes Pestalozzi in “Swan Song”. But if you do not manage these natural needs, leaving them to themselves, then development will proceed extremely slowly. It is necessary for the teacher to skillfully guide the development of children's inclinations and abilities.

At the same time, “it is not the educator who invests new strengths and abilities in a person and breathes life into him,” the educator only makes sure that the negative influence does not disrupt the natural course of development, and supports the efforts of the child, which he himself shows for his own development. The moral, mental and practical powers of man "must be nurtured within by it." Thus, faith is strengthened through one’s own conviction, and not through thinking about it, love is based on actions filled with love, and not on lofty words about it, thought - on one’s own thinking, and not on the assimilation of other people’s thoughts. The beginning of the development of each side of the personality is the individual’s spontaneous desire for activity. The school and the teacher are faced with the task of providing children with appropriate tools and materials for their activities.

Teaching methods I.G. Pestalozzi stems from his understanding of education as the consistent development of a child through appropriate exercises, selected to ensure harmony in the manifestation of natural inclinations. Pestalozzi identified the simplest elements that he considered the basis of learning - these are number, shape, word , and elementary education should teach the child count, measure, speak. Through increasingly complex exercises, the child’s natural inclinations are developed. Exercises should be associated with the study of objects, not words, with observation of objects. Hence the need for a lesson, but not for the sake of developing observation, but for the sake of mental education in general. The child learns and develops through sensory perception and his own experience of activity, “receiving impressions and being enriched by experience.” His experience must find clear expression in words.

While learning, the child masters the concept of form through measurement, through counting - a number, through the development of speech - a word. The content of elementary education is reading, writing, arithmetic with the beginnings of geometry, measurement, drawing, singing, in addition, some knowledge of geography and natural science. This extensive program was first implemented in school practice. A feature of learning was a gradual ascent from simple to complex, thanks to the decomposition of the subject being studied into its simplest elements. The old method of teaching, which began with teaching rules, principles, and general definitions, was gradually replaced. Its place was taken by observations of objects and exercises. The purpose of teaching was the development of students, and not the dogmatic memorization of material by them. Pestalozzi was the originator of the idea of ​​developmental education. “The main purpose of primary education is not to endow the student with knowledge, but to develop and increase his mental powers,” he argued in “Swan Song.”

I.G. Pestalozzi argued that the relationship that is established between the teacher and students is very important for the school. These relationships must be based on the love of the teacher for the children. Pestalozzi himself was an example of such love; his students and followers called him father.

One of the important tasks of I.G.’s pedagogy. Pestalozzi is labor education. While spending the whole day at school, children can engage in spinning and weaving; on a piece of land, everyone can cultivate their own beds and care for animals. They learn the processing of flax and wool, get acquainted with the best farms in the village and craft workshops. Such work will promote physical development and prepare for upcoming activities.

Pedagogical ideas of I.G. Pestalozzi found support and further development in Western European pedagogy, and the experience of implementing them in the institutions led by him contributed to the widespread dissemination of the school practice of the famous teacher in Western European countries. Since the Institute of I.G. Pestalozzi in Burgdorf and Yverdon was visited by teachers, students and many people interested in issues of education, the ideas of the teacher began to spread widely and were implemented in the practice of schools in other countries. A trend in pedagogy emerged associated with the name of I.G. Pestalozzi.

Main dates of life and activity:

1746 - Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi was born in Zurich.

1769-1774 - experiment in Neuhof on running a model farm.

1775-1780 - creation and operation of the “Institution for the Poor” in Neuhof.

1789 - work in an orphanage in the city of Stanza.

1800-1826 - management of Burgdorf and Yverdon educational institutions.

1827 - Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi died.

Main works:

1781-1787 - “Lingard and Gertrude.”

1801 - "How Gertrude teaches her children."

1826 - “Swan Song”.

7.3. Developmental and educational training F.A. Disterweg. One of the most famous classical teachers of the 19th century is Friedrich Adolf Diesterweg (1790 - 1866). He went down in the history of pedagogy as the “teacher of German teachers,” as he was the organizer and for a long time the director of teachers’ seminaries in Moers and Berlin, which trained teaching staff for the public mass school.

In 1827 - 1866 published the pedagogical magazine "Rhine Leaflets...", created four teachers' societies, in 1848 he was elected chairman of the General German Teachers' Union, made proposals for the reform of the school existing at that time, demanding its separation from the church and universal education of children, the implementation of universal, civic and national education.

The main pedagogical work of A. Disterweg is “Guide to the Education of German Teachers” (1835). The book contains instructions. How can a teacher improve his professional level, what path to take in teaching individual subjects and what means to use for this.

The teacher wrote over 20 textbooks (he dealt mainly with issues of education and upbringing in primary school), educational manuals on mathematics, German, natural science, geography, and astronomy. The books were widely known in Germany and throughout Europe.

Disterweg based his education on three principles:

Ø Natural conformity of training and education. He understood this principle as the development in the pedagogical process of those good inclinations that are inherent in the child by nature.

Ø The principle of children’s initiative and activity in learning and their own personal development. In modern pedagogy, it is interpreted as the creation in the pedagogical process of conditions for the formation and development of the child’s subjective life position.

Ø Cultural conformity of training and education, that is, taking into account in the pedagogical process the conditions and level of culture of a given time of the country, homeland, and family of the student.

The implementation of these principles in pedagogical practice has necessitated the development of fundamentally new teaching ideas. These in the pedagogical heritage of A. Disterweg are ideas for developmental education. On their basis, he built 33 didactic rules, according to which the teacher must be well aware of the individual manifestations of his students, their characteristics, level of development, range of interests and hobbies. Only knowing and taking into account all this can one learn “naturally”, overcoming difficulties gradually and consistently.

The teacher resolutely spoke out against the educational overload of students: “The trouble usually lies in the fact that young teachers strive to teach students everything that they themselves know, but in fact, they need to tell students only the essential... A bad teacher tells the truth, a good one teaches them to find it.”

In matters of didactics, Disterweg paid special attention to timely repetition of educational material, but he viewed repetition not as simple memorization, cramming, but as meaningful memorization of the most essential things in the material being studied. This not only makes it possible to firmly assimilate the content of the subject, a certain amount of knowledge, but also contributes to development of memory, and therefore the mind.

Disterweg pointed out the need to teach transition from simple to complex, from close to distant, from unknown to known. However, the didactic warned against the mechanical application of these teaching rules. After all, the easy should be interspersed with the difficult: learning should not be easy, it is quite hard work of the mind and heart, of the entire human body. Often what is distant from students in time and space turns out to be very close, interesting and accessible, while what is close turns out to be difficult and complex. It is necessary to encourage students, the teacher emphasized, to work independently, ensuring that the work becomes second nature to them. The desire to carefully think through everything and master the educational material should be the student’s need; only in this case can we talk about the developmental nature of learning.

Much attention was paid by A. Disterweg in his pedagogical works to issues of school discipline. He expressed his negative attitude towards the use of punishment in pedagogical practice as a method of teaching and education. “We better not talk about punishment,” he addressed the teachers. – They are mostly useless and unnecessary, that is, according to the nature of the subject of study itself. It is only necessary that the student work at school willingly. There. Where this occurs, there cannot be, and do not occur at all, cases of student disobedience. Where this is not the case, you have to constantly and unsuccessfully invent punishments."

In all the works of A. Disterweg, a red thread runs through the idea of ​​​​the importance of the art of teaching and educating a teacher (pedagogical skill) in the successful solution of pedagogical problems. He organically connected the mastery of professional activity with the personal qualities of the teacher, but he did not talk “about the general qualities of the teacher-educator: his honesty, morality, etc., but only about the qualities of the teacher that make teaching educational and fruitful.” Among these most important qualities were energy and liveliness, strength of character, love for children and their teaching work.

One of the first “teachers of German teachers” spoke about the pedagogical significance of the teacher’s appearance and manner of behavior, pointing out that the teacher should absorb “as much liveliness as possible! The latter does not consist of endless waving of arms, grimaces and facial expressions. This is spiritual life, which, of course, is also reflected on the face. On all appearance and gestures." He advised teachers to take care of their appearance, physical and spiritual health, and organization of a healthy and rational lifestyle, since in many ways, according to the German teacher, the effectiveness of a teacher’s work is determined by his physical health, well-being, and internal energy strength.

It is noteworthy that A. Disterweg was the first to attempt to identify several levels of professional activity of a teacher. He pointed out that there are teachers who work conscientiously, achieving good results in teaching and education, but there are also “brilliant virtuosos of pedagogy” who are formed as professionals “under the rarest and happiest circumstances.” Disterweg did not analyze these circumstances and pointed only to individual factors in the development of a high level of teacher professionalism. He named the most important among them the teacher’s ability for constant self-education and self-improvement. He called on teachers to “never stop” and emphasized that the teacher “is capable of educating others until that time, as long as he continues to work on his own education... general, as a person and citizen, and special, as a teacher.”

Pedagogical heritage of F.A. Disterweg is studied in detail by modern teachers and serves as an inexhaustible source of pedagogical ideas in various areas of educational research, pedagogical theory and practice.

7.4. Pedagogical theory I.F. Herbart. Famous German teacher, psychologist, philosopher Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841) was among the admirers and followers of Pestalozzi. His work as a professor is associated with the Universities of Göttingen and Köningsberg.

Having become acquainted with the works of I.G. Pestalozzi, having visited the Burg Dorf Institute (1800), he created his first pedagogical work, which he dedicated to the famous Swiss.

Herbart's teaching career began in his youth, when he was a teacher of children in the family of a Swiss aristocrat. Then, upon completion of his university education, he lectured on psychology and pedagogy and directed a seminary for teacher training. Having created an experimental school at the teachers' seminary, he taught mathematics to schoolchildren.

Herbart presented his pedagogical theory in the works: “General Pedagogy Derived from the Goals of Education” (1806), “Textbook of Psychology” (1816), “Letters on the Application of Psychology to Pedagogy” (1831), “Essay on Lectures on Pedagogy” (1835) . All of them are rational and quite difficult to understand.

In his pedagogical views, Herbart was guided by the pedagogical ideas of Pestalozzi, but decided many things differently. Thus, he filled the gap that remained in the Swiss educator’s reasoning about how data from sensory perception can be processed into ideas, how knowledge can influence morality. Herbart believed that one can no longer look at the human mind as a dead table, and complements I.G. Pestolozzi, developing his psychological and pedagogical ideas. If Pestalozzi, relying on the idea of ​​sensory perception, strives to study the physical world, then Herbart did not consider this approach sufficient and aimed at creating a moral and aesthetic idea of ​​the world. Therefore, he preferred pure mathematics, classical languages ​​and literature to natural science studies (arithmetic, geography, natural science).

Herbart brought his pedagogical ideas into a strictly logical system, justifying them with evidence, including psychological evidence.

Let's consider the key psychological concepts of Herbart's theory. The soul (psyche) of a person, filled with nothing from birth, has one important property - it enters into relationships with the environment through the nervous system. Thanks to this, the first ideas received from sensory perceptions appear in the mind, and from the complex interactions of ideas, concepts are formed, judgments and reflections develop. Children's ideas come from two sources: from practical (experienced) contact with nature and from communication with people. The teacher must, by expanding the child's life experience, develop knowledge, and by expanding social communication, develop feelings. This led to two important conclusions:

1. The main ability of the soul is the ability of assimilation (fusion).

2. The main and determining force that shapes the soul and character is education.

Herbart divided the education process into three sections: management, training and moral education.

The teacher and philosopher derived the goals and objectives of education from philosophy and ethics.

He defined the purpose of education as follows: “The whole matter of education can be summarized in the concept of “morality.” The term “virtue” expresses the whole purpose of education.” Virtue is understood as the “idea of ​​inner freedom” that develops in a person in the process of gaining experience. Such experiences cause the individual to approve or disapprove of observed phenomena and to make judgments at the level of taste. Therefore, Herbart called them aesthetic ideas (he called his philosophical treatise “The Aesthetic Idea of ​​the Universe as the Main Goal of Education”). Such ideas include “suitable, beautiful, moral, fair,” that is, everything that is pleasant in the process of contemplation. The main goal of parenting is to develop these preferences through experience, conversation and education.

Herbart reduced virtue to five moral ideas. Chief among them is the idea inner freedom, harmony of will and desire I. The task of education is to form a character that “will remain unshakable in the struggle of life” and is based on strong moral conviction and will.

The tasks of education were defined by the German classical teacher as follows: enriching the soul with ideas or experience based on ideas, developing ideas and motives for behavior.

Morality depends on good will and knowledge, and these in turn depend on the enlightenment of man or ideas developed from original ideas. Will and action (behavior) arise from desire, or motivation. Hence the conclusion that Herbart came to: “The action that the student reveals to himself, choosing good and rejecting evil, is this, and nothing else, is the formation of character.” The teacher’s actions are limited, since the student himself makes the choice and completes it with his actions; the teacher cannot “pour into the soul of his student” a force capable of forcing him to act. But he creates conditions under which the result will be the student’s virtue; all the efforts of the teacher should be directed towards this main goal.

Abstract on social work in Germany

"The social and pedagogical activity of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi."

Introduction.

Brief biography of I.G. Pestalozzi.

Basic provisions of the pedagogical theory of I.G. Pestalozzi.

The basis of Pestalozzi's didactics. Theory of elementary education.

Physical and labor education.

Moral education.

Mental education.

Creation of private methods of primary education.

The significance of the pedagogical theory of I.G. Pestalozzi.

The relevance of the socio-pedagogical creativity of I.G. Pestalozzi in our days.

Literature.

Introduction.

Purpose of the study:

To identify the significance of the social and pedagogical activities of I.G. Pestalozzi in our days.

Get acquainted with the social and pedagogical activities of I.G. Pestalozzi.

Get acquainted with his works.

Based on the above, to summarize the significance of the socio-pedagogical creativity of I.G. Pestalozzi in our days.

I.G. Pestalozzi is a practicing teacher. He developed general principles and specific methods of primary education. Pestalozzi's not always successful experience in teaching cannot detract from the significance of his ideas and their influence on the development of pedagogical thought. Pestalozzi's activities during his lifetime gained wide international fame. His legacy was highly appreciated by K.D. Ushinsky.

He was a populist in the best sense of the word. Pestalozzi passionately promoted the need for education for all classes, especially peasants. The dream of improving the situation of the people was embodied in specific economic and socio-pedagogical projects that did not stand the test of real socio-economic conditions. Economically unsound projects by I.G. Pestalozzi was given invaluable pedagogical material.

Brief biography of I.G. Pestalozzi.

Switzerland is the birthplace of Pestalozzi. Heinrich Pestalozzi was born in Zurich in 1746. His father, a doctor, died early. The boy was raised by his mother and a devoted maid. The family's financial situation was difficult. As a child, observing the life of Swiss peasants, Pestalozzi saw how they were cruelly oppressed by both the nobles - landowners and the owners of manufactories, who distributed work to the peasants at home. The boy was imbued with the conviction that “all evil comes from the city,” and declared: “I will help the peasants more.”

Pestalozzi knew the works of French enlighteners well and at the age of seventeen he read “Emile” by Rousseau. This book, like “The Social Contract,” made a huge impression on the young man and strengthened his intention to selflessly serve the people.

The progressive youth of Zurich organized a circle called the “Helvetic (i.e., Swiss) furriers’ society” (its meetings were held in the house of the tanners’ workshop). Members of the circle, who called themselves “patriots,” discussed problems of morality, education, politics, and were engaged in exposing officials who robbed peasants. In 1767, the circle was closed by the city authorities, and young Pestalozzi, along with its other members, was arrested. Without graduating from college, he decided to pursue his cherished dream of improving the situation of the people. In 1769 he began his social experiment. With the money he borrowed, he bought a small estate, which he called “Neigof” (“New Yard”), in which he wanted to organize a demonstration farm in order to teach the surrounding peasants how to manage their farms rationally. Pestalozzi was an impractical and inexperienced owner, and he soon went bankrupt.

In 1774, he opened an “Institution for the Poor” in Neuhof, in which he gathered up to fifty orphans and street children. According to Pestalozzi, his orphanage was to be maintained using funds earned by the children themselves. Pupils worked in the fields, as well as on weaving and spinning looms. Pestalozzi himself taught children reading, writing and arithmetic, educated them, and artisans taught them to spin and weave. Thus, Pestalozzi made attempts in his institution to combine the education of children with productive labor.

Pestalozzi wrote that he “wanted to use a significant part of the income received by the factory industry from human labor to create real educational institutions that would fully meet the needs of humanity...” However, the work started by Pestalozzi, but not supported by those in whose hands it was political power and material resources quickly perished. Children could pay for the orphanage in which they lived and worked with their labor only through the excessive strain of their physical strength, but, a humanist and democrat, Pestalozzi could not and did not want to exploit his pupils. He saw child labor, first of all, as a means of developing the physical strength, mental and moral abilities of children, and sought to give children not narrow craft skills, but versatile labor training.

This is the most important pedagogical significance of Pestalozzi's Neuhof experience. Without the financial means to continue his experiment, Pestalozzi was soon forced to close the shelter. However, the failures that befell him did not dissuade him from his chosen path of helping the people.

Over the next eighteen years, Pestalozzi was engaged in literary activities, trying to draw attention to the solution of the same pressing issue: how to revive the economy of the peasants, make their lives secure, how to raise the moral and mental state of the working people? He publishes the social and pedagogical novel “Lingard and Gertrude” (1781-1787), in which he develops his ideas about improving peasant life through reasonable farming methods and proper education of children.

The name Pestalozzi becomes increasingly famous. In 1792, the Legislative Assembly of revolutionary France awarded Pestalozzi, among eighteen foreigners who had distinguished themselves as champions of freedom, with the high title of French citizen.

In 1798, a bourgeois revolution took place in Switzerland and the Helvetic (Swiss) Republic was created. When a counter-revolutionary uprising of peasants, provoked by the nobility and the Catholic clergy, broke out in the city of Stanza, and after the suppression of the uprising there were many street children left, the new government instructed Pestalozzi to organize an educational institution for them. In the building of the former monastery, Pestalozzi opened a shelter for street children, which accepted 80 children aged 5 to 10 years. The condition of the children was both physically and morally the most terrible.

Pestalozzi strove to make the shelter a big family; he became a caring father and best friend for the children.

In a letter to one of his friends about his stay in Stanza, he later wrote: “From morning to evening I was alone among them... My hand lay in their hand, my eyes looked into theirs. My tears flowed along with theirs, and my smile accompanied theirs. I had nothing: no home, no friends, no servants, there were only them.” The orphanage pupils responded to Pestalozzi's paternal care with sincere affection and love, which contributed to the successful implementation of their moral education.

Due to hostilities, the shelter premises were required for an infirmary, and the shelter was closed. Since 1799, Pestalozzi began to carry out experimental work in schools in Burgdorf. He was able to prove that his method of teaching children literacy and numeracy had many advantages over traditional teaching methods, and the authorities gave him the opportunity to apply this method on a larger scale.

A secondary school with a boarding school was opened in Burgdorf, with a department for training teachers headed by Pestalozzi. At the very beginning of the 19th century, his works were published: “How Gertrude Teaches Her Children”, “The Book of Mothers, or a Guide for Mothers on How to Teach Their Children to Observe and Speak”, “The ABC of Visualization, or the Visual Teaching of Measurement”, “Visual teaching about number”, which outlined new methods of primary education.

In 1805, Pestalozzi moved his institute to the French part of Switzerland - to Yverdon (German name - Iferten) and in the castle provided to him he created a large institute (secondary school and pedagogical educational institution), which soon gained worldwide fame. Scientists, writers, and politicians visited this institute. Many children of aristocrats and wealthy bourgeois, who were preparing for universities or bureaucratic careers, studied there.

Pestalozzi experienced great dissatisfaction because his teachings and activities were not used for the masses, but in the interests of the noble and rich. In 1825, a disappointed Pestalozzi returned to Neuhof, where he began his social and pedagogical activities half a century ago. Here, as an eighty-year-old man, he wrote his last work - “Swan Song” (1826). Pestalozzi died in 1827, never understanding why he, having selflessly devoted all his talent and strength to the working people, could not achieve an improvement in their difficult social and financial situation.

Basic provisions of the pedagogical theory of I.G. Pestalozzi.

The most important goal of education, according to Pestalozzi, is the development of a person’s natural abilities and his constant improvement. Pestalozzi preached the harmonious development of human strengths and abilities; all good inclinations of a person should be maximally developed. Strengths are given to man by nature; one must only be able to develop, strengthen, direct them and eliminate harmful external influences and obstacles that can disrupt the natural course of development, and for this one must master the laws of development of the “physical and spiritual nature of the child.” The center of all education is the formation of a person and his moral character. “Active love for people” is what should lead a person forward morally. For Pestalozzi, the religious principle dissolves in morality. Pestalozzi has a negative attitude towards official religion and its ministers.
Pestalozzi attaches great importance to family education. In the matter of public education, he emphasizes in one of his works, one should imitate the advantages that lie in family education. Pestalozzi points out that a feeling of love for children, trust in them, discipline, a sense of gratitude, patience, duty, moral feelings, etc. arise from the child's relationship to the mother.
How should we develop the powers and abilities inherent in human nature? Through exercise. Each ability inherent in a person requires and forces a person to exercise it.
Pestalozzi was not a revolutionary, but sought to improve the situation of the poorest part of the peasantry. He believed that labor should play a crucial role in raising children of low-income parents, since the life purpose of these children is to work. In his opinion, the labor education of the children of peasants and artisans should be the main means of improving the situation of the people.
The combination of learning with production work (craft and agricultural) was one of the main provisions in the pedagogical practice and theory of Pestalozzi.
At school, according to Pestalozzi's idea ("Lingard and Gertrude"), children spend the whole day at spinning and weaving looms; There is a plot of land at the school, and each child cultivates three beds and takes care of the animals. Children learn the processing of flax and wool, get acquainted with the management of the best farms in the village, as well as with the work of a handicraft watch workshop. Children were engaged in tree planting, repairing wooden bridges, teaching peasants how to keep account books, etc. During work, as well as during rest hours, the teacher teaches children literacy and arithmetic lessons and imparts basic knowledge to them. Pestalozzi emphasized the educational importance of labor education for the formation of a person. During his work, he strove to “warm and develop the minds of children” because the goal that he set for himself was the education of a person, and “not agriculture, housekeeping, which are means.” Harmonious development of personality involves the development of the mind, heart and hand. Only on the basis of labor is it possible to develop a person’s spiritual strength and abilities. Labor education, according to Pestalozzi, is impossible in isolation from mental and moral education.
However, such “practical” labor education actually reduced the level of general educational training. It is clear that such a combination of general educational knowledge with difficulty is purely mechanical in nature and is not an organic combination of learning with productive labor.

Great teacher and educational reformer Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi(1746-1827) founded several educational institutions in Switzerland and wrote many pedagogical works that decisively changed the principles of education. Its motto is education for the head, hands and heart. Pestalozzi saw poor children forced into factory work from an early age, with few of them attending school. Under the influence of the works of J.-J. Rousseau, he decided to achieve social justice, freedom and happiness of the people through teaching activities. He was forced to close the Neuhof Institution for the Poor, which he opened in 1774, in 1780 as a result of a financial collapse that doomed his family to poverty.

Pestalozzi published four volumes of stories “Lingard and Gertrude” (1781, 1783, 1785, 1787) describing the life of Gertrude, a mother who teaches her children. When serfdom was abolished in Switzerland in 1798, Pestalozzi drew up a project for a school, because after the invasion of the French army (1798), many children lost their homes and families.

The Swiss government created an orphanage and invited Pestalozzi to head the newly created orphanage in Stanz (1799). Finding the children in a terrible state, he began to perform the work of master, servant, father, guardian, nurse and teacher. Taking into account previous experience in the orphanage, education and craft were combined, however, the teacher no longer hoped for the products of child labor as a possible source of income. Pestalozzi considered any work only as a way to teach physical dexterity, improve work skills and form friendships among students, develop attention, observation and memory. His efforts achieved his goal - he managed to achieve the obvious well-being of the children, but the orphanage was soon closed. Pestalozzi was appointed as a teacher at a school in Burgdorf with a small salary and an apartment. Soon Pestalozzi transferred to another school, where he taught children from five to 18 years of age. Pestalozzi decided to open an “educational institution for middle-class children” in Burgdorf (1800), two teachers joined him, they systematized his teaching methods.

Pestalozzi created the pedagogical work “How Gertrude teaches her children. An attempt to instruct mothers on how to educate their children themselves" (1801), which attracted the attention of a wide range of readers, the book had a profound impact on the theory and practice of education. It consists of 14 letters that describe teaching experience and the situation in Burgdorf. The letters contain his thoughts and summarize his learning experiences, and also talk about physical, moral and religious education. Pestalozzi developed a unique concept of developmental education and demonstrated a set of psychological and pedagogical exercises for the effective education of children. The great success of the book aroused general interest, many teachers came from all over Switzerland and Germany to get acquainted with the school in Burgdorf. The school grew, but Pestalozzi felt dissatisfied with the activities, he turned to the Swiss government to get the opportunity to educate the poor, in response, they sent him two commissioners to investigate his work. Having received favorable feedback, the government decided to transform the Pestalozzi school into a national institution. Employees began to receive a fixed salary, and textbooks by Pestalozzi and his employees were published (1803).

In 1804, the new Swiss government demanded a schoolhouse for its officials, and Pestalozzi was moved to an old monastery in the countryside. His work at the Yverdon Institute turned out to be the longest of all his endeavors. The governments of many countries sent teachers to study with Pestalozzi and then implement a similar system in their own states. Young F. Frebel worked as a teacher in Yverdon (1808-1810) and wrote that Pestalozzi’s pedagogy became his life’s work. Students of all ages were educated at Yverdon; German, French, Latin and Greek, geography, natural history, literature, history, arithmetic, geometry, geodesy, drawing and the penis were taught here. Pestalozzi emphasized that every aspect of a child's life contributes to the formation of personality; the teaching methods he developed were focused on the child and his individual abilities and perceptions. Pestalozzi taught Latin, Hebrew and Greek in Yverdon; his humane approach contributed to the development of language teaching methods; he took into account the functions of the native language in the teaching of ancient languages. In addition, Pestalozzi developed a regime of physical activity and active recreation associated with general, moral and intellectual education, which reflected the ideal of autonomy of the human person. Pestalozzi's educational philosophy is based on the concept of a humane sense of life and the good nature of the human person: real education can develop a child mentally, physically and morally; he called for the development of “head, hands and heart”. Pestalozzi's goal is education that can make humanity happy. Interpreting childhood as a natural state in which needs and abilities are in balance, he did not believe that this state can be maintained in the life of an individual, it arises only at the moment of birth, and the person becomes “spoiled.” An ideal education system can help a person recreate himself and develop morality in him. Pestalozzi argued that “circumstances make a man,” but he discovered that a person has within himself forces that can, of his own free will, influence circumstances. This inner strength is purely individual and independent of natural and social conditions; the achievement of morality by a person depends on two conditions: politics and education. Pestalozzi’s concept of education is based on the following principles:

I) the main factor is the interests and needs of the child; 2) pedocentric approach to learning; 3) the child’s active participation in the educational process; 4) the freedom of the child, based on his natural development and self-discipline; 5) use of direct experience and natural objects in teaching; 6) use of students’ sensory perception in teaching; 7) cooperation between school and home and between parents and teachers; 8) the importance of a comprehensive education; 9) systematization of training subjects; 10) interdisciplinary nature of training;

II) the importance of correspondence between the methodology and content of education; 12) power is based on love, not fear. Pestalozzi believed in the capacity of every person to learn and in the right of every person to education, and the duty of society to provide this right in practice. His activities led to the emergence in Europe of the concept of democratic education accessible to all.

Pestalozzi shortened the educational process and created programs based on the natural development of the personality of a growing child. Using Rousseau's idea of ​​raising children in accordance with nature, he rejected formalism in teaching reading and catechism and introduced teaching based on observation, experimentation and reasoning. Sensory impression became his motto; he tried to organize and psychologize the educational process by bringing it into line with the natural development of the child. To this end, he carefully studied children, developed research methods, conducted experiments and observations. He believed that the teacher’s job is to help nature ensure the natural and harmonious development of all the child’s abilities. The only true way to develop education is to guide and stimulate the child’s independent activity in the learning process. Education must follow the correct course of child development and be consistent, so that each stage of the process grows from the previous one and moves into the following stages. To achieve these goals, education must be comprehensive and harmonious; the child should be given freedom to learn; teaching should not be verbal, but the method should be mainly analytical; the study of real objects must precede symbols and words; the organization and correlation of lessons must be under the control of the teacher.