Search... BIOCHEMISTRY (biological chemistry)

- biological science that studies the chemical nature of substances that make up living organisms, their transformations and the connection of these transformations with the activity of organs and tissues. The set of processes inextricably linked with life is usually called metabolism (see Metabolism and energy).

The study of the composition of living organisms has long attracted the attention of scientists, since the substances that make up living organisms, in addition to water, mineral elements, lipids, carbohydrates, etc., include a number of the most complex organic compounds: proteins and their complexes with a number of other biopolymers , primarily with nucleic acids.

Modern biology as an independent science developed at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. Until this time, the issues now considered by B. were studied from different angles by organic chemistry and physiology. Organic chemistry (see), which studies carbon compounds in general, deals, in particular, with the analysis and synthesis of those chemicals. compounds that make up living tissue. Physiology (see), along with the study of vital functions, also studies chemistry. processes underlying life activity. Thus, biochemistry is a product of the development of these two sciences and can be divided into two parts: static (or structural) and dynamic. Static biology deals with the study of natural organic substances, their analysis and synthesis, while dynamic biology studies the entire set of chemical transformations of certain organic compounds in the process of life. Dynamic biology, therefore, is closer to physiology and medicine than to organic chemistry. This explains why biology was initially called physiological (or medical) chemistry.

Like any rapidly developing science, biochemistry, soon after its inception, began to be divided into a number of separate disciplines: biochemistry of humans and animals, biochemistry of plants, biochemistry of microbes (microorganisms) and a number of others, because, despite the biochemical unity of all living things, in animal and plant organisms There are also fundamental differences in the nature of metabolism. First of all, this concerns the processes of assimilation. Plants, unlike animal organisms, have the ability to use simple chemicals such as carbon dioxide, water, salts of nitric and nitrous acids, ammonia, etc. to build their bodies. Moreover, the process of building plant cells requires an influx of energy from outside into the body. form of sunlight. The use of this energy is primarily carried out by green autotrophic organisms (plants, protozoa - Euglena, a number of bacteria), which in turn themselves serve as food for everyone else, the so-called. heterotrophic organisms (including humans) inhabiting the biosphere (see). Thus, the separation of plant biochemistry into a special discipline is justified from both theoretical and practical sides.

The development of a number of industries and agriculture (processing of raw materials of plant and animal origin, food preparation, production of vitamin and hormonal preparations, antibiotics, etc.) led to the separation of technical biotechnical science into a special section.

When studying the chemistry of various microorganisms, researchers encountered a number of specific substances and processes of great scientific and practical interest (antibiotics of microbial and fungal origin, various types of fermentations of industrial importance, the formation of protein substances from carbohydrates and the simplest nitrogenous compounds, etc. ). All these questions are considered in the biochemistry of microorganisms.

In the 20th century The biochemistry of viruses arose as a special discipline (see Viruses).

The needs of clinical medicine caused the emergence of clinical biochemistry (see).

Other sections of biology, which are usually considered as fairly separate disciplines with their own tasks and specific research methods, include: evolutionary and comparative biology (biochemical processes and chemical composition of organisms at various stages of their evolutionary development), enzymology (structure and function of enzymes, kinetics of enzymatic reactions), biology of vitamins, hormones, radiation biochemistry, quantum biochemistry - comparison of the properties, functions and pathways of transformation of biologically important compounds with their electronic characteristics obtained using quantum chemical calculations (see Quantum biochemistry).

Particularly promising has been the study of the structure and function of proteins and nucleic acids at the molecular level. This range of issues is studied by sciences that arose at the intersections of biology and genetics—molecular biology (q.v.) and biochemical genetics (q.v.).

Historical sketch of the development of research in the chemistry of living matter. The study of living matter from the chemical side began from the moment when the need arose to study the constituent parts of living organisms and the chemical processes occurring in them in connection with the needs of practical medicine and agriculture. The research of medieval alchemists led to the accumulation of a large amount of factual material on natural organic compounds. In the 16th - 17th centuries. the views of alchemists were developed in the works of iatrochemists (see Iatrochemistry), who believed that the vital activity of the human body can be correctly understood only from the standpoint of chemistry. Thus, one of the most prominent representatives of iatrochemistry, the German physician and naturalist F. Paracelsus, put forward a progressive position on the need for a close connection between chemistry and medicine, emphasizing that the task of alchemy is not to make gold and silver, but to create that which is strength and virtue medicine. Iatrochemists introduced it into honey. practice preparations of mercury, antimony, iron and other elements. Later, I. Van Helmont suggested the presence of special principles in the “juices” of a living body - the so-called. "enzymes" involved in a variety of chemical processes. transformations.

In the 17th -18th centuries. The phlogiston theory became widespread (see Chemistry). The refutation of this fundamentally erroneous theory is associated with the works of M.V. Lomonosov and A. Lavoisier, who discovered and established in science the law of conservation of matter (mass). Lavoisier made a major contribution to the development not only of chemistry, but also to the study of biological processes. Developing earlier observations of Mayow (J. Mayow, 1643-1679), he showed that during respiration, as with the combustion of organic substances, oxygen is absorbed and carbon dioxide is released. At the same time, he, together with Laplace, showed that the process of biological oxidation is also a source of animal heat. This discovery stimulated research on the energetics of metabolism, as a result of which already at the beginning of the 19th century. the amount of heat released during the combustion of carbohydrates, fats and proteins was determined.

Major events of the second half of the 18th century. began the studies of Reaumur (R. Reaumur) and Spallanzani (L. Spallanzani) on the physiology of digestion. These researchers were the first to study the effect of the gastric juice of animals and birds on various types of food (mainly meat) and laid the foundation for the study of enzymes of digestive juices. The emergence of enzymology (the study of enzymes), however, is usually associated with the names of K. S. Kirchhoff (1814), as well as Payen and Persaud (A. Payen, J. Persoz, 1833), who first studied the effect of the amylase enzyme on starch in vitro.

An important role was played by the work of J. Priestley and especially J. Ingenhouse, who discovered the phenomenon of photosynthesis (late 18th century).

At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. other basic research in the field of comparative biochemistry was carried out; At the same time, the existence of the cycle of substances in nature was established.

From the very beginning, the successes of static biology were inextricably linked with the development of organic chemistry.

The impetus for the development of the chemistry of natural compounds was the research of the Swedish chemist K. Scheele (1742 - 1786). He isolated and described the properties of a number of natural compounds - lactic, tartaric, citric, oxalic, malic acid, glycerin and amyl alcohol, etc. The research of I. Berzelius and 10. Liebig, which ended with the development at the beginning of the 19th century, was of great importance. methods of quantitative elemental analysis of organic compounds. Following this, attempts began to synthesize natural organic substances. The successes achieved - the synthesis of urea by F. Weller in 1828, acetic acid by A. Kolbe (1844), fats by P. Berthelot (1850), carbohydrates by A. M. Butlerov (1861) - were especially important because showed the possibility of synthesizing in vitro a number of organic substances that are part of animal tissues or are the end products of metabolism. Thus, the complete inconsistency of the widespread in the 18-19 centuries was established. vitalistic ideas (see Vitalism). In the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. Many other important studies were carried out: uric acid was isolated from urinary stones (Bergman and Scheele), cholesterol was isolated from bile [J. Conradi], glucose and fructose were isolated from honey (T. Lowitz), and leaves green plants - the pigment chlorophyll [Pelletier and Caventou (J. Pelletier, J. Caventou)], creatine was discovered in the muscles [Chevreul (M. E. Chevreul)]. The existence of a special group of organic compounds was shown - plant alkaloids (Serturner, Meister, etc.), which later found application in honey. practice. The first amino acids, glycine and leucine, were obtained from gelatin and bovine meat by hydrolysis [Proust (J. Proust), 1819; Braconnot (H. Braconnot), 1820].

In France, in the laboratory of C. Bernard, glycogen was discovered in the liver tissue (1857), the ways of its formation and the mechanisms regulating its breakdown were studied. In Germany, in the laboratories of E. Fischer, E. F. Hoppe-Seyler, A. Kossel, E. Abdergalden and others, the structure and properties of proteins, as well as the products of their hydrolysis, including enzymatic hydrolysis, were studied.

In connection with the description of yeast cells (C. Cognard-Latour in France and T. Schwann in Germany, 1836 -1838), they began to actively study the fermentation process (Liebig, Pasteur, etc.). Contrary to the opinion of Liebig, who considered the fermentation process as a purely chemical process occurring with the obligatory participation of oxygen, L. Pasteur established the possibility of the existence of anaerobiosis, i.e. life in the absence of air, due to the energy of fermentation (a process inextricably linked, in his opinion, with life activity cells, e.g. yeast cells). Clarity on this issue was brought by the experiments of M. M. Manasseina (1871), who showed the possibility of fermenting sugar by destroyed (grinding with sand) yeast cells, and especially by the works of Buchner (1897) on the nature of fermentation. Buchner managed to obtain cell-free juice from yeast cells, capable, like living yeast, of fermenting sugar to form alcohol and carbon dioxide.

The emergence and development of biological (physiological) chemistry

The accumulation of a large amount of information regarding the chemical composition of plant and animal organisms and the chemical processes occurring in them led to the need for systematization and generalizations in the field of biology. The first work in this regard was Simon’s textbook (J. E. Simon) “Handbuch der angewandten medizinischen Chemie” (1842 ). Obviously, it was from this time that the term “biological (physiological) chemistry” became established in science.

Somewhat later (1846), Liebig’s monograph “Die Tierchemie oder die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Physiologie und Pathologie” was published. In Russia, the first textbook of physiological chemistry was published by Kharkov University professor A.I. Khodnev in 1847. Periodical literature on biological (physiological) chemistry began to be published regularly in 1873 in Germany. This year Maly (L. R. Maly) published "Jahres-Bericht uber die Fortschritte der Tierchemie." In 1877, the scientific journal “Zeitschr. fur physiologische Chemie", later renamed "Hoppe-Seyler's Zeitschr. fur physiologische Chemie.” Later, biochemical journals began to be published in many countries around the world in English, French, Russian and other languages.

In the second half of the 19th century. At the medical faculties of many Russian and foreign universities, special departments of medical, or physiological, chemistry were established. In Russia, the first department of medicinal chemistry was organized by A. Ya. Danilevsky in 1863 at Kazan University. In 1864, A.D. Bulyginsky founded the Department of Medical Chemistry at the Medical Faculty of Moscow University. Soon, departments of medicinal chemistry, later renamed departments of physiological chemistry, appeared in the medical faculties of other universities. In 1892, the Department of Physiological Chemistry, organized by A. Ya. Danilevsky, began to function at the Military Medical (Medical-Surgical) Academy in St. Petersburg. However, the reading of individual sections of the physiological chemistry course was carried out there much earlier (1862-1874) at the Department of Chemistry (A.P. Borodin).

The real heyday of B. came in the 20th century. At the very beginning, the polypeptide theory of protein structure was formulated and experimentally substantiated (E. Fischer, 1901 - 1902, etc.). Later, a number of analytical methods were developed, including micromethods, which make it possible to study the amino acid composition of minimal amounts of protein (several milligrams); The method of chromatography (see), first developed by the Russian scientist M. S. Tsvet (1901 - 1910), methods of X-ray diffraction analysis (see), “labeled atoms” (isotope indication), cytospectrophotometry, electron microscopy (see) have become widespread. . Preparative protein chemistry is making great progress; effective methods for isolating and fractionating proteins and enzymes and determining their molecular weight are being developed [S. Cohen, A. Tiselius, T. Swedberg].

The primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure of many proteins (including enzymes) and polypeptides is deciphered. A number of important, biologically active protein substances are synthesized.

The greatest achievements in the development of this direction are associated with the names of L. Pauling and R. Corey - the structure of polypeptide chains of proteins (1951); V. Vigneault - structure and synthesis of oxytocin and vasopressin (1953); Sanger (F. Sanger) - the structure of insulin (1953); Stein (W. Stein) and S. Moore - deciphering the ribonuclease formula, creating an automatic machine for determining the amino acid composition of protein hydrolysates; Perutz (M. F. Perutz), Kendrew (J. Kendrew) and Phillips (D. Phillips) - deciphering using X-ray structural analysis methods and creating three-dimensional models of the molecules of myoglobin, hemoglobin, lysozyme and a number of other proteins (1960 and subsequent years) .

Of outstanding importance were the works of J. Sumner, who first proved (1926) the protein nature of the urease enzyme; research by J. Northrop and M. Kunitz on the purification and production of crystalline preparations of enzymes - pepsin and others (1930); V. A. Engelhardt on the presence of ATPase activity in the contractile muscle protein myosin (1939 - 1942), etc. A large number of works are devoted to the study of the mechanism of enzymatic catalysis [Michaelis and Menten (L. Michaelis, M. L. Menten), 1913; R. Willstetter, Theorell, Koshland (N. Theorell, D. E. Koshland), A. E. Braunstein and M. M. Shemyakin, 1963; Straub (F.V. Straub), etc.], complex multienzyme complexes (S.E. Severin, F. Linen, etc.), the role of cell structure in the implementation of enzymatic reactions, the nature of active and allosteric centers in enzyme molecules (see. Enzymes), the primary structure of enzymes [V. Shorm, Anfinsen (S.V. Anfinsen), V.N. Orekhovich, etc.], regulation of the activity of a number of enzymes by hormones (V.S. Ilyin, etc.). The properties of “enzyme families” - isoenzymes are being studied [Markert, Kaplan, Wroblewski (S. Markert, N. Kaplan, F. Wroblewski), 1960-1961].

An important stage in the development of protein was the deciphering of the mechanism of protein biosynthesis with the participation of ribosomes, information and transport forms of ribonucleic acids [J. Brachet, F. Jacob, J. Monod, 1953-1961; A. N. Belozersky (1959); A. S. Spirin, A. A. Baev (1957 and subsequent years)].

The brilliant works of E. Chargaff, J. Davidson, especially J. Watson, F. Crick and M. Wilkins culminate in elucidation of the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (see). The double-stranded structure of DNA and its role in the transmission of hereditary information are established. The synthesis of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) is carried out by A. Kornberg (1960 - 1968), S. Weiss, S. Ochoa. One of the central problems of modern biology is being solved (1962 and subsequent years) - the RNA amino acid code is being deciphered [Crick, M. Nirenberg, Matthaei (F. Crick, J. H. Matthaei), etc.].

For the first time, one of the genes and phage fx174 are synthesized. The concept of molecular diseases associated with certain defects in the DNA structure of the cell's chromosomal apparatus is introduced (see Molecular genetics). A theory is being developed for the regulation of the work of cistrons (see), responsible for the synthesis of various proteins and enzymes (Jacob, Monod), and the study of the mechanism of protein (nitrogen) metabolism continues.

Previously, the classical studies of I.P. Pavlov and his school revealed the basic physiological and biochemical mechanisms of the digestive glands. Particularly fruitful was the collaboration between the laboratories of A. Ya. Danilevsky and M. V. Nenetsky with the laboratory of I. P. Pavlov, which led to the clarification of the place of formation of urea (in the liver). F. Hopkins and his co-workers. (England) established the importance of previously unknown food components, developing on this basis a new concept of diseases caused by nutritional deficiency. The existence of nonessential and essential amino acids is established, and protein standards in nutrition are developed. The intermediate metabolism of amino acids is deciphered - deamination, transamination (A. E. Braunstein and M. G. Kritsman), decarboxylation, their mutual transformations and features of exchange (S. R. Mardashev and others). The mechanisms of biosynthesis of urea (G. Krebs), creatine and creatinine are elucidated, a group of extractive nitrogenous substances of muscles - dipeptides carnosine, carnitine, anserine - is discovered and subjected to detailed study [V. S. Gulevich, Ackermann (D. Ackermann),

S. E. Severin and others]. The features of the process of nitrogen metabolism in plants are subject to detailed study (D. N. Pryanishnikov, V. L. Kretovich, etc.). A special place was occupied by the study of disorders of nitrogen metabolism in animals and humans with protein deficiency (S. Ya. Kaplansky, Yu. M. Gefter, etc.). The synthesis of purine and pyrimidine bases is carried out, the mechanisms of formation of urinary acid are elucidated, the breakdown products of hemoglobin (pigments of bile, feces and urine) are studied in detail, the pathways of heme formation and the mechanism of occurrence of acute and congenital forms of porphyria and porphyrinuria are deciphered.

Outstanding successes have been achieved in deciphering the structure of the most important carbohydrates [A. A. Collie, Tollens, Killiani, Haworth (B.C. Tollens, H. Killiani, W. Haworth), etc.] and mechanisms of carbohydrate metabolism. The transformation of carbohydrates in the digestive tract under the influence of digestive enzymes and intestinal microorganisms (in particular, in herbivores) has been clarified in detail; works on the role of the liver in carbohydrate metabolism and maintaining blood sugar concentrations at a certain level, begun in the middle of the last century by C. Bernard and E. Pfluger, are clarified and expanded; the mechanisms of glycogen synthesis (with the participation of UDP-glucose) and its breakdown are deciphered [K . Corey, Leloir (L. F. Leloir), etc.]; schemes for intermediate carbohydrate metabolism are created (glycolytic, pentose cycle, Tricarboxylic acid cycle); the nature of individual intermediate metabolic products is clarified [Ya. O. Parnas, G. Embden, O. Meyerhof, L. A. Ivanov, S. P. Kostychev, A. Harden, Krebs, F. Lipmann, S. Cohen, V. A . Engelhardt and others]. The biochemical mechanisms of carbohydrate metabolism disorders (diabetes, galactosemia, glycogenosis, etc.) associated with hereditary defects of the corresponding enzyme systems are being clarified.

Outstanding successes have been achieved in deciphering the structure of lipids: phospholipids, cerebrosides, gangliosides, sterols and sterides [Thierfelder, A. Windaus, A. Butenandt, Ruzicka, Reichstein (H. Thierfelder, A. Ruzicka, T. Reichstein), etc.].

Through the works of M.V. Nenetsky, F. Knoop (1904) and H. Dakin, the theory of β-oxidation of fatty acids was created. The development of modern ideas about the pathways of oxidation (with the participation of coenzyme A) and synthesis (with the participation of malonyl-CoA) of fatty acids and complex lipids is associated with the names of Leloir, Linen, Lipmann, D. E. Green, Kennedy (E. Kennedy) and etc.

Significant progress has been made in studying the mechanism of biological oxidation. One of the first theories of biological oxidation (the so-called peroxide theory) was proposed by A. N. Bach (see Biological oxidation). Later, a theory appeared according to which various substrates of cellular respiration undergo oxidation and their carbon is ultimately converted into CO2 due to the oxygen of water rather than the absorbed air (V.I. Palladii, 1908). Subsequently, a major contribution to the development of the modern theory of tissue respiration was made by the works of G. Wieland, T. Tunberg, L. S. Stern, O. Warburg, Euler, D. Keilin (N. Euler) and others. Warburg deserves the credit the discovery of one of the coenzymes of dehydrogenases - nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP), a flavin enzyme and its prosthetic group, a respiratory iron-containing enzyme, which was later called cytochrome oxidase. He also proposed a spectrophotometric method for determining the concentrations of NAD and NADP (Warburg test), which then formed the basis for quantitative methods for determining a number of biochemical components of blood and tissues. Keilin established the role of iron-containing pigments (cytochromes) in the chain of respiratory catalysts.

Of great importance was Lipmann's discovery of coenzyme A, which made it possible to develop a universal cycle of aerobic oxidation of the active form of acetate - acetyl-CoA (citric acid Krebs cycle).

V. A. Engelhardt, as well as Lipmann, introduced the concept of “energy-rich” phosphorus compounds, in particular ATP (see Adenosine phosphoric acids), in the high-energy bonds of which a significant part of the energy released during tissue respiration is accumulated (see Biological oxidation).

The possibility of phosphorylation (see) associated with respiration in the chain of respiratory catalysts embedded in mitochondrial membranes was shown by V. A. Belitser and H. Kalckar. A large number of works are devoted to studying the mechanism of oxidative phosphorylation [Cheyne (V. Chance), Mitchell (P. Mitchell), V.P. Skulachev, etc.].

20th century was marked by the deciphering of the chemical structure of all vitamins known in crust, time (see), international units of vitamins were introduced, the vitamin needs of humans and animals were established, and a vitamin industry was created.

No less significant progress has been achieved in the field of chemistry and biochemistry of hormones (see); the structure of steroid hormones of the adrenal cortex was studied and synthesized (Windaus, Reichstein, Butenandt, Ruzicka); The structure of the thyroid hormones - thyroxine, diiodothyronine - has been established [E. Kendall (E. S. Kendall), 1919; Harington (S. Harington), 1926]; adrenal medulla - adrenaline, norepinephrine [Takamine (J. Takamine), 1907]. The synthesis of insulin was carried out, the structure of somatotropic), adrenocorticotropic, and melanocyte-stimulating hormones was established; other protein hormones have been isolated and studied; schemes for the interconversion and exchange of steroid hormones have been developed (N. A. Yudaev and others). The first data on the mechanism of action of hormones (ACTH, vasopressin, etc.) on metabolism have been obtained. The mechanism of regulation of the functions of the endocrine glands based on the feedback principle has been deciphered.

Significant data were obtained from studying the chemical composition and metabolism of a number of important organs and tissues (functional biochemistry). Peculiarities in the chemical composition of nervous tissue have been established. A new direction in biology is emerging - neurochemistry. A number of complex lipids that make up the bulk of brain tissue have been isolated - phosphatides, sphingomyelins, plasmalogens, cerebrosides, cholesterides, gangliosides [J. Thudichum, H. Waelsh, A. B. Palladium, E. M. K reps, etc.] . The basic patterns of nerve cell metabolism are clarified, the role of biologically active amines - adrenaline, norepinephrine, histamine, serotonin, γ-amino-butyric acid, etc. is deciphered. Various psychopharmacological substances are introduced into medical practice, opening up new opportunities in the treatment of various nervous diseases. Chemical transmitters of nervous excitation (mediators) are studied in detail; various cholinesterase inhibitors are widely used, especially in agriculture, to control insect pests, etc.

Significant progress has been made in the study of muscle activity. The contractile proteins of muscles are studied in detail (see Muscle tissue). The most important role of ATP in muscle contraction has been established [V. A. Engelhardt and M. N. Lyubimova, Szent-Gyorgyi, Straub (A. Szent-Gyorgyi, F. V. Straub)], in the movement of cellular organelles, penetration of phages into bacteria [Weber, Hoffmann-Berling (N. Weber, H. Hoffmann-Berling), I. I. Ivanov, V. Ya. Alexandrov, N. I. Arronet, B. F. Poglazov, etc.]; the mechanism of muscle contraction at the molecular level is studied in detail [H. Huxley, J. Hanson, G. M. Frank, Tonomura, etc.], the role of imidazole and its derivatives in muscle contraction is studied (G . E. Severin); theories of two-phase muscle activity are being developed [Hasselbach (W. Hasselbach)], etc.

Important results were obtained by studying the composition and properties of blood: the respiratory function of blood was studied under normal conditions and in a number of pathological conditions; the mechanism of oxygen transfer from the lungs to tissues and carbon dioxide from tissues to the lungs has been clarified [I. M. Sechenov, J. Haldane, D. van Slyke, J. Barcroft, L. Henderson, S. E. Severin, G. E. Vladimirov, E. M. Crepe, G.V. Derviz]; ideas about the mechanism of blood coagulation were clarified and expanded; The presence of a number of new factors in the blood plasma has been established, in the congenital absence of which various forms of hemophilia are observed in the blood. The fractional composition of blood plasma proteins (albumin, alpha, beta and gamma globulins, lipoproteins, etc.) was studied. A number of new plasma proteins have been discovered (properdin, C-reactive protein, haptoglobin, cryoglobulin, transferrin, ceruloplasmin, interferon, etc.). A system of kinins has been discovered - biologically active polypeptides of blood plasma (bradykinin, kallidin), which play an important role in the regulation of local and general blood flow and take part in the mechanism of development of inflammatory processes, shock and other pathological processes and conditions.

In the development of modern biology, an important role was played by the development of a number of special research methods: isotope indication, differential centrifugation (separation of subcellular organelles), spectrophotometry (see), mass spectrometry (see), electron paramagnetic resonance (see), etc.

Some prospects for the development of biochemistry

B.'s successes largely determine not only the modern level of medicine, but also its possible further progress. One of the main problems of biology and molecular biology (see) is the correction of defects in the genetic apparatus (see Gene therapy). Radical therapy of hereditary diseases associated with mutational changes in certain genes (i.e., DNA sections) responsible for the synthesis of certain proteins and enzymes is, in principle, possible only by transplanting similar ones synthesized in vitro or isolated from cells (e.g., bacteria) "healthy" genes. A very tempting task is also to master the mechanism for regulating the reading of genetic information encoded in DNA and deciphering at the molecular level the mechanism of cell differentiation in ontogenesis. The problem of treating a number of viral diseases, especially leukemia, will probably not be solved until the mechanism of interaction of viruses (in particular, oncogenic ones) with the infected cell becomes completely clear. Work in this direction is being intensively carried out in many laboratories around the world. Elucidating the picture of life at the molecular level will allow not only to fully understand the processes occurring in the body (biocatalysis, the mechanism of using ATP and GTP energy when performing mechanical functions, transmission of nervous excitation, active transport of substances through membranes, the phenomenon of immunity, etc.), but also will open up new opportunities in the creation of effective medicines, in the fight against premature aging, the development of cardiovascular diseases (atherosclerosis), and prolongation of life.

Biochemical centers in the USSR. The Institute of Biochemistry named after A.I. operates within the system of the USSR Academy of Sciences. A. N. Bakh, Institute of Molecular Biology, Institute of Chemistry of Natural Compounds, Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry named after. I.M. Sechenova, Institute of Protein, Institute of Physiology and Biochemistry of Plants, Institute of Biochemistry and Physiology of Microorganisms, branch of the Institute of Biochemistry of the Ukrainian SSR, Institute of Biochemistry of Armenia. SSR, etc. The USSR Academy of Medical Sciences includes the Institute of Biological and Medical Chemistry, the Institute of Experimental Endocrinology and Hormone Chemistry, the Institute of Nutrition, and the Department of Biochemistry of the Institute of Experimental Medicine. There are also a number of biochemical laboratories in other institutes and scientific institutions of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, academies of the Union republics, in universities (departments of biochemistry of Moscow, Leningrad and other universities, a number of medical institutes, the Military Medical Academy, etc.), veterinary, agricultural and other scientific institutions. In the USSR there are about 8 thousand members of the All-Union Biochemical Society (VBO), which is part of the European Federation of Biochemists (FEBS) and the International Biochemical Union (IUB).

Radiation biochemistry

Radiation biology studies changes in metabolism that occur in the body when it is exposed to ionizing radiation. Irradiation causes ionization and excitation of cellular molecules, their reactions with free radicals (see) and peroxides arising in the aqueous environment, which leads to disruption of the structures of biosubstrates of cellular organelles, the balance and mutual connections of intracellular biochemical processes. In particular, these shifts in combination with post-radiation effects from the damaged c. n. With. and humoral factors give rise to secondary metabolic disorders that cause the course of radiation sickness. An important role in the development of radiation sickness is played by the acceleration of the breakdown of nucleoproteins, DNA and simple proteins, inhibition of their biosynthesis, disturbances in the coordinated action of enzymes, as well as oxidative phosphorylation (see) in mitochondria, a decrease in the amount of ATP in tissues and increased oxidation of lipids with the formation of peroxides (see . Radiation sickness, Radiobiology, Medical radiology).

Bibliography: Afonsky S.I. Biochemistry of animals, M., 1970; Biochemistry, ed. N. N. Yakovleva, M., 1969; ZbarekiY B.I., Ivanov I.I. and M and r-d and sh e in S. R. Biological chemistry, JI., 1972; Kretovich V. JI. Fundamentals of plant biochemistry, M., 1971; JI e n and d-j e r A. Biochemistry, trans. from English, M., 1974; Makeev I. A., Gulevich V. S. and Broude JI. M. Course of biological chemistry, JI., 1947; Mahler, G. R., and Cordes, Y. G. Fundamentals of Biological Chemistry, trans. from English, M., 1970; Ferdman D. JI. Biochemistry, M., 1966; Filippovich Yu. B. Fundamentals of biochemistry, M., 1969; III t r a u b F. B. Biochemistry, trans. from Hungarian, Budapest, 1965; R a r o r o g t S. M. Medizinische Bioc-hemie, B., 1962.

Periodicals- Biochemistry, M., since 1936; Questions of medical chemistry, M., since 1955; Journal of evolutionary biochemistry and physiology, M., since 1965; Izvestia of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Series of Biological Sciences, M., since 1958; Molecular biology, M., since 1967; Ukrainian byukhem1chny journal, Kshv, since 1946 (1926-1937 - Naukov1 notes of the Ukrainian byukhemichny sheti-tutu, 1938-1941 - Byukhemny journal); Advances in biological chemistry, JI., since 1924; Advances in modern biology, M., since 1932; Annual Review of Biochemistry, Stanford, since 1932; Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics, N.Y., since 1951 (1942-1950 - Archives of Biochemistry); Biochemical Journal, L., since 1906; Biochemische Zeitschrift, V., since 1906; Biochemistry, Washington, since 1964; Biochimica et biophysica acta, N. Y. - Amsterdam, since 1947; Bulletin de la Soci6t<5 de chimie biologique, P., с 1914; Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, L., с 1960; Hoppe-Seyler’s Zeitschrift fiir physiologische Chemie, В., с 1877; Journal of Biochemistry, Tokyo, с 1922; Journal of Biological Chemistry, Baltimore, с 1905; Journal of Molecular Biology, L.-N.Y., с 1960; Journal of Neurochemistry, L., с 1956; Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, N. Y., с 1903; См. также в ст. Клиническая биохимия, Физиология, Химия.

B. radiation- Kuzin A. M. Radiation biochemistry, M., 1962; P o -Mantsev E. F. et al. Early radiation-biochemical reactions, M., 1966; Fedorova T. A., Tereshchenko O. Ya. and M a z u r i k V. K. Nucleic acids and proteins in the body during radiation injury, M., 1972; Cherkasova L. S. et al. Ionizing radiation and metabolism, Minsk, 1962, bibliogr.; Altman K. I., Gerber G. V. a. About k a d a S. Radiation biochemistry, v. 1-2, N.Y.-L., 1970.

I. I. Ivanov; T. A. Fedorova (glad).

Animals, plants, fungi, viruses, bacteria. The number of representatives of each kingdom is so large that one can only wonder how we all fit on Earth. But, despite such diversity, all living things on the planet share several basic features.

The commonality of all living things

The evidence comes from several basic features of living organisms:

• nutritional needs (energy consumption and its transformation within the body);
• breathing needs;
• ability to reproduce;
• growth and development throughout the life cycle.

Any of the listed processes is represented in the body by a mass of chemical reactions. Every second, hundreds of reactions of synthesis and decomposition of organic molecules occur inside any living creature, and especially a person. The structure, features of chemical action, interaction with each other, synthesis, decomposition and construction of new structures of molecules of organic and inorganic structure - all this is the subject of study of a large, interesting and diverse science. Biochemistry is a young, progressive field of knowledge that studies everything that happens inside living beings.

An object

The object of study of biochemistry is only living organisms and all the life processes occurring in them. Specifically, the chemical reactions that occur during the absorption of food, the release of waste products, growth and development. Thus, the basics of biochemistry are the study of:

1. Non-cellular forms of life - viruses.
2. Prokaryotic bacterial cells.
3. Higher and lower plants.
4. Animals of all known classes.
5. Human body.

At the same time, biochemistry itself is a fairly young science, which arose only with the accumulation of a sufficient amount of knowledge about the internal processes in living beings. Its emergence and isolation dates back to the second half of the 19th century.

Modern branches of biochemistry

At the present stage of development, biochemistry includes several main sections, which are presented in the table.

Thus, we can say that biochemistry is a whole complex of small sciences that cover the whole variety of the most complex internal processes of living systems.

Affiliated Sciences

Over time, so much different knowledge has accumulated and so many scientific skills have been formed in processing research results, breeding bacterial colonies and RNA, inserting known sections of the genome with given properties, and so on, that there is a need for additional sciences that are subsidiary to biochemistry. These are sciences such as:

• molecular biology;
• Genetic Engineering;
• gene surgery;
• molecular genetics;
• enzymology;
• immunology;
• molecular biophysics.

Each of the listed areas of knowledge has a lot of achievements in the study of bioprocesses in living biological systems, and therefore is very important. All of them belong to the sciences of the 20th century.

Reasons for the intensive development of biochemistry and related sciences

In 1958, Korana discovered the gene and its structure, after which the genetic code was deciphered in 1961. Then the structure of the DNA molecule was established - a double-stranded structure capable of reduplication (self-reproduction). All the subtleties of metabolic processes (anabolism and catabolism) were described, the tertiary and quaternary structure of the protein molecule was studied. And this is not a complete list of the most significant discoveries of the 20th century, which form the basis of biochemistry. All these discoveries belong to biochemists and science itself as such. Therefore, there are many prerequisites for its development. We can identify several modern reasons for its dynamism and intensity in its formation.

1. The basis of most chemical processes occurring in living organisms has been revealed.
2. The principle of unity in most physiological and energetic processes for all living beings has been formulated (for example, they are the same in bacteria and humans).
3. Medical biochemistry provides the key to treating a host of various complex and dangerous diseases.
4. With the help of biochemistry, it has become possible to approach the solution of the most global issues of biology and medicine.

Hence the conclusion: biochemistry is a progressive, important and very broad-spectrum science that allows us to find answers to many questions of humanity.

Biochemistry in Russia

In our country, biochemistry is as progressive and important a science as in the whole world. On the territory of Russia there are the Institute of Biochemistry named after. A. N. Bakh RAS, Institute of Biochemistry and Physiology of Microorganisms named after. G.K. Scriabin RAS, Research Institute of Biochemistry SB RAS. Our scientists have a great role and many merits in the history of the development of science. For example, the method of immunoelectropheresis, the mechanisms of glycolysis were discovered, the principle of nucleotide complementarity in the structure of the DNA molecule was formulated, and a number of other important discoveries were made. At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. Basically, not entire institutes were formed, but the department of biochemistry in some of the universities. However, soon there was a need to expand the space for studying this science due to its intensive development.

Biochemical processes of plants

The biochemistry of plants is inextricably linked with physiological processes. In general, the subject of study of plant biochemistry and physiology is:

• vital activity of a plant cell;
• photosynthesis;
• breath;
• water regime of plants;
• mineral nutrition;
• quality of the crop and the physiology of its formation;
• plant resistance to pests and unfavorable environmental conditions.

Implications for agriculture

Knowledge of the deep processes of biochemistry in plant cells and tissues makes it possible to increase the quality and quantity of crops of cultivated agricultural plants, which are mass producers of important food products for all mankind. In addition, the physiology and biochemistry of plants make it possible to find ways to solve problems of pest infestation, plant resistance to unfavorable environmental conditions, and make it possible to improve the quality of crop products.

What is Biochemistry?

The issue is resolved and closed.

Future doctor, chemist or pharmacist?

3) well, proteins - they denature, so they precipitate! You heat it above 70 degrees and that’s it. hydrogen bonds are broken. the protein has lost its shape in space, i.e. the secondary structure disintegrated (this is when it twisted into a spiral and occupied a certain position in space), only the primary structure was not damaged (amino acids sequentially connected by peptide bonds “in a line”)... * ___this is something like if a sand figure suddenly crumbled into grains of sand and lost their shape in space, although the sand molecules remained the same___ * well, or in addition to heating, acid and other chemicals, organic solvents (ethanol, for example), salts of heavy metals, you can influence the protein and it will precipitate, also UV radiation, formalin)) ... with the tertiary structure everything is more complicated. there are also ionic (coo- and NH3+), hydrophilic, hydrophobic bonds...

2) hydrolysis of proteins occurs in an acidic environment, at elevated temperatures. temperature. (see methods above) and biochemical hydrolysis is also carried out by enzymes :) - proteases. Peptones are formed from protein, then polypeptides, then alpha amino acids. in, biochemical method.

1) and if an amino acid has 2 COOH groups, then this acid will have a negative charge and, accordingly, acidic properties, and if there are two OH groups, then a negative charge and alkaline properties. And what are the features of the condensation reaction - I’m in a stupor, I don’t know.

Blood is taken from a finger for minor tests: a glucometer - for sugar, blood type can be taken, to check hemoglobin levels. They take it from a vein for major tests (hepatitis, AIDS, etc.)


Blood from a finger??? It’s strange... they haven’t taken blood from a finger for a long time... what village are you from?


They still take it. Everywhere!


this village is called Russia)))


Medicine in Russia is one of the best in the world! There are different clinics. And don’t call Russia a village! Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan, Chelyabinsk, Ufa, Omsk, Novosibirsk and many other cities are all about a million or more in population. And were you there? I was! Dynamics everywhere! People run, trade, work... and here in Latvia, outwardly, we can see Latvian slowness. I saw the picture everywhere: a straight road, the car needs to turn left, naturally it slows down a little, but in Russia the people behind this car will not wait for it to turn, they will all go around on the side of the road and move on. Because it’s important to have time and do it!

• You can sleep peacefully, but repeat it periodically every six months. This is what doctors recommend.

  In any case, you will have to take both practice and theory. It’s better to learn everything, study on your own and with a tutor. Themes:
  1. Blood;
  2. Clinical biochemistry;
  3. Muscles;
  4. Deviations and norms;
  5. Amino acids;
  6. Proteins;
  7. Enzymes;
  8. Amino acid metabolism;
  9. Vitamins;
  10. Fats;
  11. Carbohydrates;
  12. Violation of amino acid metabolism;
  13. Conversion of amino acids;
  14. Exchange of nitrogenous bases and nucleotides;
  15. Matrix biosynthoses;
  16. Biosynthoses;
  17. Metabolism and structure of carbohydrates;
  18. General pathways of catabolism;
  19. Hormonal signaling;
  20. Biochemistry of nitrogenous substances in the blood;
  21. Exchange of heme and hemoglobin;
  22. Acid-base state;
  23. Biochemistry of the kidneys;
  24. Biochemistry of the liver.

BIOCHEMISTRY
a science that describes the structure and functions of living organisms in the language of chemistry. Biochemical concepts find applications in medicine, food, pharmaceutical and microbiological industries, agriculture, and in the processing industries using agricultural wastes and by-products.
Areas of research. Several stages and directions can be distinguished in the development of biochemistry.
Types of organic compounds and their structure. Of fundamental importance was the compilation of a list of organic compounds found in living organisms and the establishment of the structure of each of them. This list includes relatively simple compounds - amino acids, sugars and fatty acids, then more complex ones - pigments (which give color to flowers, for example), vitamins and coenzymes (non-protein components of enzymes), and ends with giant molecules of proteins and nucleic acids.
Metabolic pathways. Apparently, the most significant advances in biochemistry are associated with elucidating the pathways of biosynthesis of natural compounds from simpler substances, i.e. from food components in animals and from carbon dioxide and minerals (during photosynthesis) in plants. Biochemists have been able to study in detail the main metabolic pathways that ensure the synthesis and breakdown of natural compounds in animals, plants and microorganisms (in particular, bacteria).
Structure and functions of macromolecules. The third direction of biochemistry is associated with the analysis of the relationship between the structure and function of biological macromolecules. Thus, biochemists are trying to understand what structural features of protein catalysts underlie their specificity, i.e. the ability to accelerate strictly defined reactions; how complex polysaccharides that make up cell walls and membranes perform their functions; How complex lipids present in nervous tissue participate in the functioning of nerve cells - neurons.
Functioning of cells. Another problem that biochemists are dealing with is uncovering the mechanisms of functioning of specialized cells.
For example, the following questions are studied: how muscle cells contract, how certain cells form bone tissue, how red blood cells transfer oxygen from the lungs to tissues and take carbon dioxide from tissues, what is the mechanism of pigment synthesis in plant cells, etc. Research beginning in the 1940s on fungi and bacteria and later on higher organisms, including humans, has shown that gene mutations typically cause certain biochemical reactions in cells to stop occurring. These observations led to the creation of the concept of the gene as an information unit responsible for the synthesis of a specific protein. If a protein is an enzyme, and the gene encoding it has undergone a mutation (i.e., changed), then the cell loses the ability to carry out the reaction that this enzyme should catalyze. A gene is a specific segment of a deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecule that is capable of replicating (reproducing itself) and is responsible for the synthesis of a specific protein. Many biochemical studies are aimed at elucidating the details of nucleic acid replication and the mechanism of protein synthesis, and are therefore closely related to genetics. The field of study, which lies in the fields of both biochemistry and genetics, is usually called molecular biology. The Human Genome Project is a grandiose international project in the field of molecular biology and genetics, in which teams of scientists from many countries take part. The goal of the project is to construct genetic maps of the 23 human chromosomes with precise indications of the positions of all tens of thousands of genes on these chromosomes and ultimately determine the structure of the chromosomes, i.e. sequence of approximately 3 billion nitrogen base pairs that make up chromosomal DNA. These studies will create a database accessible to all scientists that is of great value for the study of human genetics, and most importantly, will help biochemists uncover the mechanisms of hereditary diseases.
Medical biochemistry. Every year, an increasing number of diseases can be associated with certain metabolic disorders. The joint efforts of biochemists and doctors have made it possible to uncover the nature of the disorders underlying diseases such as diabetes mellitus and sickle cell anemia. In more than 800 cases, a correlation has been established between metabolic disorders and genetic defects, and in some cases, methods have been found that can mitigate the consequences of the disease. Non-genetic factors also play an important role in eliminating pathological conditions. For example, determining the salt composition and acid-base balance of blood plasma makes it possible to avoid shock or dehydration during extensive surgical interventions, and to successfully combat uncontrollable vomiting, diarrhea in infants and other diseases.
See also:
BIOPHYSICS;
CELL ;
ENZYMES;
GENETIC COUNSELING ;
GENETIC ENGINEERING ;
METABOLISM;
NUCLEIC ACIDS ;
PHOTOSYNTHESIS;
PROTEINS.
LITERATURE
Strayer L. Biochemistry, vols. 1-3. M., 1985 Leninger A. Fundamentals of biochemistry, vol. 1-3. M., 1985 Goodwin T., Mercer E. Introduction to plant biochemistry, vol. 1-2. M., 1986 Murray R., Grenner D., Mayes P., Rodwell V. Human biochemistry, vol. 1-2. M., 1993

Collier's Encyclopedia. - Open Society. 2000 .

See what "BIOCHEMISTRY" is in other dictionaries:

Biochemistry… Spelling dictionary-reference book

Modern encyclopedia

Biochemistry- BIOCHEMISTRY, the science of the chemical substances that make up organisms, their structure, distribution, transformations and functions, as well as the chemical processes underlying life activity. Man received his first information on biochemistry in the process... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

- (Greek). The doctrine of the exchange of matter in living bodies. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. BIOCHEMISTRY is the study of the exchange of matter in living beings. A complete dictionary of foreign words that came into use in... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

The science that studies the composition and chemical processes occurring in living organisms. Biochemistry plays a significant role in understanding the patterns of energy flow and the cycle of substances in ecosystems, their biological productivity, biogeochemical... ... Ecological dictionary

Studies the chemical substances that make up organisms, their structure, distribution, transformations and functions. The first information on biochemistry is related to human economic activity (processing of plant and animal raw materials, use... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

Biological chemistry, the science of chemistry. composition of living matter and chemical processes occurring in living organisms and underlying their life activity. B. is composed of static B., which is primarily concerned with chemical analysis. composition... ... Biological encyclopedic dictionary

BIOCHEMISTRY, the science of the chemistry of living organisms. Uses methods of organic and physical chemistry to study life processes. Biochemists study the structure and properties of all components of living matter (FATS, PROTEINS, enzymes, HORMONES, VITAMINS, DNA,... ... Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary

Noun, number of synonyms: 3 biology (73) neurochemistry (1) enzymology (2) ... Synonym dictionary

biochemistry- - Topics of biotechnology EN biochemistry ... Technical Translator's Guide

biochemistry- biological chemistry biol., chemical... Dictionary of abbreviations and abbreviations

Books

• Biochemistry, L. Strayer, The book by a scientist from the USA examines the main problems of biochemistry and molecular biology at the most modern scientific level. The second volume examines the processes of generation, transformation and... Category: Mathematics and science Series: Publisher: YOYO Media,

Hospital patients and their relatives often wonder what biochemistry is. This word can be used in two meanings: as science and as a designation for a biochemical blood test. Let's look at each of them.

Biochemistry as a science

Biological or physiological chemistry - biochemistry is a science that studies the chemical composition of the cells of any living organisms. In the course of its study, the patterns in accordance with which all chemical reactions occur in living tissues that ensure the vital functions of organisms are also examined.

Scientific disciplines related to biochemistry are molecular biology, organic chemistry, cell biology, etc. The word “biochemistry” can be used, for example, in the sentence: “Biochemistry as a separate science was formed approximately 100 years ago.”

But you can learn more about similar science if you read our article.

Blood biochemistry

A biochemical blood test involves a laboratory study of various indicators in the blood, tests are taken from a vein (the process of venipuncture). Based on the results of the study, it is possible to assess the condition of the body, and specifically its organs and systems. More information about this analysis can be found in our section.

Thanks to blood biochemistry, you can find out how the kidneys, liver, heart work, as well as determine the rheumatic factor, water-salt balance, etc.