Latin alphabet (Latin letters). Latin Alphabet and Pronunciation Parts of Speech Basics

November 11th, 2015 , 09:59 pm

Jewish Kabbalah says that letter "meme" represents the idea of ​​transition and change."Mem" is the thirteenth letter of the Hebrew alphabet. The “Eywa” rune appears as number 13: it is located in the middle of the alphabet and is the rune of transformation, as it symbolizes the transition from living to dead (and vice versa). From the deck of Tarot cards, this rune corresponds to the lasso “Death”, also appearing at number thirteen. Now let's take the Latin alphabet.

As you can see, the letter "M" occupies thirteenth place in the alphabet. However, in the Russian alphabet, if we remove the letter E and the letter Y, which duplicate the letters E and I, we get the letter M in the same thirteenth place.

All words related to s begin with this letter. m third: m dead, y m irritate, m org, with m irenia, m oral. Well, in English it’s the same situation: morbid - painful, unhealthy; morgue - morgue; moribund - dying; Morpheus - Morpheus, god of sleep, brother of Thanatos, god of death; mortal - mortal; mortification - humility; moralist - a person who leads a highly moral life, that is, literally a “dead man walking.” The ancient Slavic goddess Mara is the goddess of death, hence the terms pestilence, to die. By the way, the term for the Latin god of war Mars also comes from the goddess of death Mara.

Interestingly, the letters M and N are located right in the middle of the alphabet.

The alphabet begins with the "generative" letter alpha. This letter has a pregnant belly from which all other letters of the alphabet are born. Now, if we compare the alphabetical series with a person’s life, then at the end of it there will be the letter omega, very reminiscent of a woman’s vulva

The path of man is from alpha to omega. In ancient times, a coffin was no different from a child’s cradle, and the cradle was made like a miniature coffin. In Revelation God says of Himself: " I am Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the end " .

Of course, God has no "end". It’s just that “end” means “beginning”: it is no coincidence that both letters - omega and alpha - are “feminine”. One gives birth, and the other takes into itself what is generated in order to become pregnant with life again. "The cycle of letters in nature." There is no death; there is only rebirth from omega to alpha. He entered the omega's vulva and found himself in the alpha's womb.

This means that a person is born with the letter alpha and then sequentially passes through all the letters of the alphabet until he ends up in omega. Consequently, we will not sin against the truth if we imagine the alphabetical series as a person’s life from birth to death. So he was born, and “classes” began, like in school, only instead of numbers there were letters: the first class of life was alpha, the second class was beta, the third was gamma, and so on until the 13th year of study.

And what happened at the age of 13 (sometimes 12) among representatives of ancient traditional societies? - That's right, a rite of passage, that is transition from childhood to adulthood. Since this ritual was also the introduction of teenagers to the spiritual life of the tribe, they prepared for it as if they were going to die. After all, encounters with spirits occur in borderline states between life and death. Now everything is falling into place: fear of the number 13, and the lasso “Death” at number thirteen, and it is not by chance that the letter “M” took thirteenth place.

Language is the most enduring tradition of all traditions, and therefore language brought to us both the ideas of the ancients about life and death, and hints at the main rite of traditional societies.

• A a(A)*
• B b(b)
• C c- before “e”, “i”, “y”, “ae”, “oe” is pronounced (ts), in other cases - (k)

D d- (d)

• E e- (uh)*
• F f- (f)
• G g- (G)

H h- (X)

• I i- (And); (th) - before vowels.
• K k- (k) - rarely found in Greek borrowings.
• Ll- (l)

Mm- (m)

• Nn- (n)
• O o- (O)
• P p- (p)

Q q- (To)

• R r- (r)
• Ss- (With); (h) - between vowels.
• T t- in the combination “ti” + vowel it is read (qi) + vowel, if there is no “s”, “t”, “x” before “ti”.

U u- (y)

• Vv- (V)
• X x- (ks)
• Y y- (and) - in Greek borrowings.

Z z- (h) - in Greek borrowings.

Diphthongs, pronunciation features:

• ae- (uh)
• oh- (yo [yo]) - something like that

ch- (X)

• ph- (f) - words of Greek origin.
• th- (t) - words of Greek origin.
• rh- (r) - words of Greek origin.

Latin alphabet in human history

Human civilization has already reached a high level, and we practically don’t think about where we got these or those things that we use every day; it seems that it has always been this way. Let's not talk about the latest technological progress now, let's think about more global things, such as language and writing. Every day on store signs, product packaging, and price tags on things, we come across inscriptions in foreign languages, most often English, which has rightfully won its international status. In the last decade, the prevalence of the English language has erased all boundaries; it has become vital for those who want to make a successful career. Even those who do not speak this language can easily read the names of popular brands, and all thanks to its incredible popularization. The Russian language uses the Cyrillic script for writing, and it is also used by some other Slavic peoples, such as the Bulgarians and Serbs. But more than half of European languages ​​use latin alphabet . These simple Latin letters seem to have been with us for an eternity. But both language and writing are always the result of centuries of work by the people. It was the advent of writing that made it possible for ancient civilizations to leave memories to their descendants. Without writing, there would be no literature, and scientific and technological progress would be impossible. How did writing originate? What gave ancient people the idea of ​​how to record the necessary information? Nomadic tribes and warring parties had no need for writing. Their main task was to conquer a large territory for their tribe. But when the tribe began to lead a sedentary lifestyle, then the need for writing appeared. Probably, it was in one of these moments of calm that the ancient Phoenicians began to think about how to graphically display the necessary information. It was the Phoenicians who owned the first alphabet in human history, which became the progenitor of the Latin alphabet. It was the Phoenician alphabet that gave the traditional order of letters. Based on the Phoenician alphabet, the Greek alphabet developed, and it was in it that vowel letters appeared for the first time, which were borrowed from Semitic languages. For thousands of years, literacy was the privilege of the upper strata of society and the clergy; only a select few mastered this science. But it was the Ancient Greeks who were able to bring schools closer to the people, removing them from the influence of religious priests. And giving the opportunity to receive education from childhood. But Greek civilization fell under the onslaught of the Roman conquerors, who received the alphabet and writing as trophies. It was the Greek alphabet and writing system that formed the basis of Latin, the language of the Ancient Roman Empire. Over the millennia, the alphabet has been transformed, for example, initially there were 23 letters in the Latin alphabet, only in the Middle Ages, three more new letters were added (J, U and W), and the alphabet acquired such a familiar look. At the dawn of Latin writing, they wrote without separating words with spaces, and did not yet use punctuation marks. The belligerence of the Romans expanded the empire in all directions, in the end, even the north of Europe was conquered, and the Romans crossed the English Channel. Encampments of Roman legions are found in England, France, Syria and Judea, and even in Africa, near Tunisia and Algeria. The main base of the Roman Empire, of course, remained Italy. Many tribes that inhabited Europe at that time, in order to survive, tried to enter into an alliance with the Romans, such as the Germans and Goths. Such alliances were mostly long-term. Latin began to be used as a language of international communication. It was the emergence of Christianity, and its formation in Ancient Rome, that strengthened the position of Latin. Latin became the official language of the religion, which very quickly spread throughout Europe, displacing pagan cults. And when Christianity already became the official religion of Rome, the role of Latin strengthened, because now it is the official language of the church. And the role of the church in the political system in European countries cannot be underestimated. Latin is used for correspondence by diplomats and heads of state, it becomes the official language of science, and it is in Latin that the works of scientists and theological treatises are published. And the Renaissance, which swept like a fresh spring wind across Europe tormented by the Inquisition, also chose Latin as its language. The great Leonardo da Vinci, Isaac Newton, Galileo Galilei and Keppler wrote their works in Latin. In the spread of Latin writing, an important role was also played by the fact that many nations chose the Latin alphabet to write their native languages, so as not to invent new letters, but to use those already familiar to everyone. In its development, Latin writing went through many stages, the font was transformed, as architectural styles changed. In various historical periods, minuscule Roman italics and Roman capital letters, uncial letters and semi-uncial letters, Merovingian and Visigothic scripts, Old Italic letters and Gothic, rotunda and Swabian letters appeared. Many of these fonts are still used for decorative purposes. This is exactly how the evolution of writing took place, introducing new signs, styles, and methods of writing. The topic of the emergence of writing is very interesting and multifaceted; it is closely related to the development of human civilization with historical and cultural events. It is through the example of writing that one can establish a historical connection between seemingly completely different peoples. Transformation of primitive rock paintings, first into drawn symbols, and then into individual letters, which corresponded to a specific sound. The pinnacle of this process was the invention of printing. This allowed science and culture to develop at a new level.

The Latin alphabet consists of 24 letters. The pronunciation of Latin words has undergone a number of changes over the centuries, partly related to phonetic processes occurring in the new Western European languages. In addition, we do not know the true pronunciation of the Romans, and different peoples pronounce Latin words differently. Currently, there is a tendency, based on scientific research, to unify Latin pronunciation, bringing it as close as possible to the pronunciation of the ancient Romans. Below is the traditional reading of Latin letters adopted in Russian educational practice.

Latin alphabet

Typeface

Name

Pronunciation

Aspirate 1

And 2

K 3

L 4

Typeface

Name

Pronunciation

1. Letter h conveys aspiration; the currently accepted pronunciation corresponds to the pronunciation English or German h: horse, Herz.
2. Letter i pronounced in Latin in two ways: a) as a vowel sound [and], for example: imperator [emperator] lord; b) as a consonant [th] before vowels: iuventus [yuventus] youth.
3. Letter k occurs only in a few words: Kalendae [kalende] Kalends(first day of every month); Kaeso [kaezo] proper name; Karthago [kartago] Carthage. These words are also spelled: Calendae, Caeso, Carthago.
4. Letter l It is customary to pronounce it softly (as in German or French).

Vowels

In addition to the vowels a, e, i, o, u, y, Latin also has diphthongs(two-vowel), i.e. combinations of two different vowels that are pronounced as one syllable:

corresponds to the Russian monosyllabic [ау] with emphasis on the first vowel (cf.: “pau-za”): aurum [ауrum] gold;

corresponds to the Russian monosyllabic [eu]: Europa [europa] Europe;

pronounced like Russian uh: Aegyptus [egyptus] Egypt;

Consonants

Letter c read in two ways: a) before e, i, y, ae, oe- like Russian ts; b) in other cases, i.e. before a, o, u, before all consonants and at the end of a word - like Russian To.

In borrowed words, most often of Greek origin, there are combinations of consonant sounds with an aspirate h:

ch- reads like Russian X: schola [schola] school, Gracchus [gracchus) Gracchus(proper name);

ph- reads like f: philosophus [philosophus] philosopher;

rh- reads like r: rhetorica [rhetoric] rhetoric;

th- reads like T: Theodorus [theodorus] Theodore(proper name).

Combination ti when placed before vowels it is read as qi: ratio (ration) intelligence, initium [initium] start; however in combinations sti, xti, tti- read you: bestia [bestia] beast.

Letter q occurs only in combination with u before vowels; this combination reads like Russian kv: quadratus [quadratus] quadrangular, quintus [quintus] fifth.

Combination ngu before vowels is pronounced like ngv: lingua [lingua] language.

Letter s between vowels is pronounced like h, and in other positions as c: causa [cause] cause, but servus [servus] slave, statua [statue] statue.

Pronunciation rules are illustrated by the examples below. The accent is indicated by the sign ́:

Notes:

1. In some words there are adjacent vowels a + e, o + e do not form a diphthong, but are pronounced as two independent syllables; in such cases, to facilitate reading above the vowel e a division sign (two dots) or a quantity sign (longitude or shortness; see below) is placed: poеta or poēta [po-e-ta] poet, poema or poēma [po-uh-ma] poem, aеr or aēr [а́-er] air, coёmo or coĕmo [ko-e-mo] I'm buying.
2. Reading a Latin letter c like Russian ts is traditional, accepted in many countries, including ours. The Romans said c in all positions as To: Cicero [kikero], Cyprus [cyprus], Eurydice [eurydike]. This is evidenced by the Greek transcription of Latin words, as well as words of Latin origin in new languages, e.g. German Kaiser from lat. Caesar (pronounced kaisar), German Keller from lat. cella. In the same way, combinations like -tia, -tio pronounced like -tia, -tio: ratio [ratio]; reading -tsia, -tsio is traditional. Nowadays, the original pronunciation is increasingly used, especially at international congresses where scientists make presentations in Latin. Therefore, without adhering to tradition, it is possible to pronounce in all cases c How To, a -tia, -tio How -tia, -tio.
3. Adjectives formed from proper names are written with a capital letter, for example: lingua Latina, theatrum Graecum, philosophus Romanus, natio Polona, ​​Universitas Varsoviensis.

Exercise

Rewrite the words given in the table and determine their meaning; Also find, if possible, words in Russian that originate from these Latin ones.

Sample: theatrum - theater, theatrical, theater specialist

Stress rules

Festina lente.
Hurry slowly.

To correctly read a Latin word, and then the text, you need to know the rules of stress. A characteristic feature of ancient Greek and Latin is the presence of long and short vowels, and stress depends on their position in the word. Since in Russian there is no difference between longness and shortness of vowels, placing stress in a Latin word sometimes causes difficulties.

In Latin they differ:

brief vowels (short sign ̆): ă, ĕ, ĭ, ŏ, ŭ, y̆;
long vowels (longitude sign ̄): ā, ē, ī, ō, ū, ȳ;
diphthongs: au, eu, ae, oe.

An open syllable containing a long vowel is long; a syllable containing a short vowel - brief. A diphthong always forms a long syllable. For example, the word Eu-rō-pă consists of two long syllables Eu-rō- and one short syllable -pă.

In addition, the number of a syllable (i.e., its relative duration - long or short) depends on its position in the word:

A) closed syllable (i.e. ending with a consonant) long;
b) open a syllable (i.e. ending in a vowel or diphthong) before another vowel - brief.

For example, in the word sĭl-vă forest the first syllable is long, despite the shortness of its vowel ĭ, because it is a closed syllable; in the word vĭ-ă road the syllable vĭ is short, since it is an open syllable and comes before a vowel.

Place of stress in a word depends on the number of the second syllable from the end of the word (i.e., on whether it is long or short):

1. The accent is not placed on the last syllable. Therefore, in two-syllable words the stress always falls on the first syllable: dóc-tor, víl-la.
2. The stress is placed on the second syllable from the end of the word if it is long: me-di-cī́-na, Eu-rṓ-ra, lo-án-nes.
3. If the second syllable from the end is short, the stress is transferred to the third syllable from the end: Rhó-dă-nus, Vís-tŭ-la, mé-dĭ-cus, tá-bŭ-la, dó-mĭ-nus, vic-tó-ri -a.

Exercise

Read the words below using reading and stress rules:

Recita! - Read it out loud!

Rector, decanus, professor, magister, Polonia, Cracovia, Vistŭla, Berolīnum, Hungaria, Francogallia, Leninopŏlis, Rhodănus, Rhenus, Danuvius, actor, scaena, circus, schola, Universĭtas, agricultūra, navigatio, mediccus, medicamentum, aqua, fortūna, res publĭca, res publĭca Polōna, pro publĭco bono, lingua Graeca, veto, meditatio, recitatio, declamatio, iustitia, consul, quaestor, victoria, doctor honōris causa.

Understanding Parts of Speech

Notes regarding parts of speech represent only the general principles of the material that will be sequentially covered in each next lesson. Therefore, you do not need to immediately memorize the grammatical terms given here: they will be repeated, and in combination with texts and explanations they will become more understandable and easier to learn.

1. Variable parts of speech

Noun, adjective, pronoun, numeral; verb

Latin is a type of inflectional language. This means that Latin words consist of a stem and endings. Changing nouns, adjectives, pronouns, numerals by cases, numbers and gender is called declination; changing verbs (according to persons, numbers, tenses, moods and voices) - conjugation. The Latin language has five declensions and four conjugations.

noun substantīvum, adjective - nomen adiectīvum, pronoun - pronōmen, numeral - nomen numerāle. These parts of speech are:

a) three kinds - genera:

masculine - genus masculinum (m)
feminine - genus feminine (f)
neuter - genus neutral (n)

b) two numbers - numeri:

singular - numĕrus singularis (sing.)
plural - numĕrus pluralis (plur.)

c) six cases - case:

Nominative Who? What?- case nominatīvus(Nom.)
Genitive whom? what? whose? whose? whose?- case genetīvus(Gen.)
Dative to whom? what?- case datīvus(Dat.)
Accusative whom? What?- case accusatīvus(Acc.)
Instrumental by whom? how?- case ablatīvus(Abl.)
Vocative (address) - casus vocatīvus(Voc.)

Note: It should be noted that in Latin there is no case corresponding to the Russian prepositional case. Its functions are performed by ablativus with various prepositions.

Adjectives also form three degrees of comparison - degree:

positive degree - gradus positivus
comparative degree - gradus comparatīvus
superlative degree - gradus superlatīvus

Note: When defining gender, number, case, degree, we skip the general term: genus, numĕrus, casus, gradus, - and use only the definition, for example: schola - nominatīvus singularis; Athēnae - nominatīvus plurālis, etc.

Verb - verbum- has the following grammatical categories:

a) three persons - persōnae

b) two numbers - numeri:

the only thing is numĕrus singularis (sing.)
plural - numĕrus pluralis (plur.)

c) six times - tempŏra:

present tense - tempus praesens

d) two pledges - genera:

active voice - genus actīvum(act.)
passive voice - genus passīvum(pass.)

e) three moods - modi:

indicative mood - modus indicatīvus(ind.)
imperative mood - modus imperatīvus(imper.)
subjunctive mood - modus coniunctivus(con.)

Note: When defining the form of a verb, we do not use the terms tempus, modus, genus, limiting ourselves only to the name of the form; for example, it is enough to define legĭmus as follows: first person pluralis, praesens indicativi acti - first person plural (number), present (tense) indicative (mood) active (voice).

Verbs also have several nominal forms, the functions and uses of which will be explained in detail later:

indefinite form - infinitivus(inf.)
participle - participium(part.)
verbal noun - gerundium
verbal adjective - gerundīvum
verbal noun with the meaning of purpose (used with verbs of motion) - supīnum.

Latin has many more infinitive forms than modern languages; There are present, past and future infinitives. Gerundium, gerundivum and supinum are specific Latin forms that cannot always be found in new languages.

2. Unchangeable parts of speech

adverb - adverbium
union - coniunctio
preposition - praepositio
interjection - interiectio