Social structure of society. Sociology by T. Parsons. Socialization theory of T. Parsons Parsons basic ideas in sociology

Socialization theory of T. Parsons- a system of theoretical positions put forward by the American sociologist Talcott Parsons (1902–1979) and reflecting the interpretation of socialization from the standpoint of structural functionalism.

Typically, coverage of Parsons's prominent role in the creation of the great system of structural functionalism obscures his contribution to the development of socialization theory, although it is original and productive for theories of youth. It reveals the influence of B. Malinovsky, with whom Parsons studied at the London School of Economics, and there are parallels with the ideas of P. A. Sorokin, well known to Parsons from Harvard University. It is important that in 1944 Parsons headed the sociology department at Harvard, and in 1946 he participated in the creation of the department of social relations, which, in addition to sociology, also included social anthropology and social and clinical psychology (Parsons headed this department until 1956). His theory of socialization was thus formed at the crossroads of those sciences that include socialization in their subject field, each on its own side, in its own aspect.

Parsons' theoretical positions are the result of the integration of the views of M. Weber, E. Durkheim, V. Pareto, and many other prominent sociologists. Parsons' most important contribution to sociology is recognized as the creation of a general theory of social action and a structural-functional theory of social systems. The “First Great Synthesis,” as Parsons called his theoretical framework (Parsons, 1998: 214), was completed with the publication of The Structure of Social Action in 1937, which marked a major turning point in his professional career. Parsons' subsequent generalizing works “The Social System” (1951) and “Toward a General Theory of Action” (1951) secured the author's priority in the development of macrosociology.

However, Parsons's desire to create a theory of society was more than once interrupted by his passion for particular sociological problems, from which, nevertheless, often new impulses to broad general sociological generalizations followed. Thus, after the appearance of The Structure of Social Action, Parsons turned to empirical research on certain issues of medical practice. Influenced by the results obtained, as well as a serious study of the works of S. Freud and then E. Erikson, he develops an original theory of socialization, which he includes in the general theory of social systems.

To understand it, it is important to consider that, according to Parsons, any social system has a set of four functions that ensure its viability. Based on the first letters of the English terms denoting these functions, their system is briefly called AGIL. The first function is designated by Parsons as A (for adaptation). This is an adaptation function. Its purpose is to adapt the system to the environment. It is ensured by rational organization and redistribution of resources in order to ensure the achievement of its goals on this basis. Parsons designated the second function with the letter G (from goal attainment - purposefulness). This is a function of achieving goals. It is also aimed at the external environment, but its purpose is different - to realize the interests of the system, to achieve the implementation of its plan, influencing the environment in its interests. The third function is designated by the letter I (from integration) - this is the integration function. Its purpose is to ensure the cohesion of all elements of the system. And this means that it is necessary to ensure that the new elements that the system is forced to include in its composition to replace the lost, outdated, etc., truly become our own, thus ensuring the continuation of the life of the system in new generations. The fourth function is designated by the letter L (from latent pattern maintenance - preserving the hidden structure). This is a function of shape retention and voltage control. When highlighting this function, Parsons proceeded from the fact that social systems must have a reserve of internal strength and withstand the loads that are created by tense relations between elements (in this case, people). The stability of social systems, according to Parsons, is supported by social institutions. The constant task of the system is to protect it from destruction from the inside. This is achieved by maintaining the patterns on which the system is oriented, i.e. by establishing a certain identity with this system of its elements. It should be noted that another abbreviation of the Parsonian model is found in the literature, namely GAIL, as indicated in the preface to the new edition of “Social systems" by Parsons, written by Brian S. Turner (Turner, 1991: XIX, XXVIII). Parsons, in his 1961 work, outlines his interpretation of this model as follows: “I propose that the basic functional imperatives of any system of action (and therefore of a social system) can be reduced to four imperatives, which I have called conservation of pattern, integration, goal achievement and adaptation. These requirements are listed in descending order of importance from the point of view of cybernetic control of action processes in a system of the type under consideration (Parsons, 2002: 565). Thus, a more accurate designation for Parsons' model would be LIGA.

The American sociologist proceeds in the analysis of socialization from the fact that the basic character of the structure of an individual personality has developed in the process of socialization on the basis of the structure of systems of social objects with which he had connections during his life, including, of course, cultural values ​​and norms institutionalized in these systems ( At the same time, according to Parsons, socialization does not need to be associated with the processes of structural changes in the society in which it occurs). Parsons views this group of “socialization systems” as a “reference group” of systems associated with the process of socialization (Parsons, 1965: 58). The author's thesis is that “the process of socialization goes through a number of stages, defined as preparation for participation in various levels of organization of society; only a select few are prepared to participate with full responsibility at higher levels of the organization. The systems of orientation included in the process of socialization ... represent special varieties of organization at the corresponding levels” (ibid.: 58–59).

Parsons identifies three main stages of the socialization process as applied to American society (each of which is divided into two substages): the first takes place in the family, the second is concentrated in elementary and secondary schools, and the third is in colleges, graduate and professional schools. Having gone through the first main phase of socialization, the child acquires the necessary concept of the main structure of the main family as a social system, which is the prototype of the social system. The theorist suggests that education systems in primary and secondary schools repeat the basic process of socialization at the next, higher level of generalization of the acquired culture and organization of social structure. Thus, secondary school is associated primarily with the differentiation of the difference between instrumental and consummatory types of roles at this level of organization. In this regard, Parsons emphasizes: “It is significant that it is here that a complete “youth culture,” so to speak, appears. The main line of differentiation runs ... between those representatives of the age group who are more oriented towards the achievements of school education and formal “training”, and those who focus mainly on the structure of the peer group, on “leadership”, “popularity”, etc.” (ibid.: 61). According to Parsons, the formal education system serves as a central point in the internalization of a system of higher order social organization than that of the family. This stage of socialization is determined by the influence of “impersonal” and universal forms of control rather than “private” and vague forms of family interaction. In the context of higher education, Parsons notes that here, “all students—both high and low achieving, although they vary greatly in their academic work—tend to be held together through a “youth culture,” being in a common school and having a common extracurricular and informal loyalty. This can help build a basis of common solidarity that goes beyond the professional differences that have already emerged” (ibid.: 63).

The most significant thing in the presented concept is that: 1) the process of socialization is associated with a continuous series of reference groups, from which it follows that structural analysis “becomes an important part of the analysis of one of the most “dynamic” social processes - the process of personal development” (ibid.: 65 ); 2) the type of dichotomization is both an important mechanism for placing people within the status structure of society, and at the same time, part of the process of formation of different types of personality, which adapt differently to different types of roles, which implies a close relationship between personality and social structure; 3) the general structural principle at work is “selection for survival.” “This means,” writes Parsons, “that the process of dichotomization of an age group distinguishes one group whose members would more willingly remain at a given level of the social hierarchy from another whose members would. to move on to the next higher level. The group that has been “promoted” is then again subject to the same type of selection pressure and again divided along the same lines. It can be seen that this selection process generally corresponds to the personal needs of a “pyramidal” system in which a relatively large number of people are “needed” at lower levels of the organization and fewer and fewer as one moves to higher levels. The process of selection, including the element of “mobility” and the element of class, is thus most closely connected with the preservation of patterns of stratification of society” (ibid.).

In accordance with this theoretical scheme, Parsons interprets the peer group as an informal group, membership of which is determined by some general social status characteristics (gender, ethnicity, profession, etc.). In research practice, the concept of a peer group is usually applied to age groups of children and youth, especially in relation to adolescent groups, where equality of status becomes extremely important for each of the group members.

Even if Parsons attaches importance to the personal choice of behavioral strategy, he is based on the typical unity of social systems, at whatever level they are formed. Both on a national scale and on a family or friendly company scale, the same functional connections operate. The group uses various methods to preserve itself and rebuild the newcomers that come to it in its own way. Parsons called such methods mechanisms of socialization. They include all the means and processes through which cultural patterns are transmitted by one party and adopted by another. These are language, values, beliefs, symbols. Having mastered them, new group members also change the structure of needs. They get used to new social roles, acquire a taste for fulfilling them, they now not only obey group norms, but want it. It is in this way that the personal system interacts with the social system (Parsons, 1964: 205–208).

So, in Parsons’ concept, socialization is a process that ensures the preservation and functioning of social systems at all levels of social life. Although this process relates to the individual, its origins and consequences are primarily associated with the structures of society and its institutions.

Parsons' socialization theory constitutes his most important contribution to the development of theories of youth, 1996; Lukov, 2007, 2012).

Lit.: , A.I. (1996) Socialization of personality: norm and deviation / Youth Institute. M. 224 pp.; Lukov, V. A. (2007) Education and globalization: Problems of the sociology of education. M.: Flinta: Science. 144 pp.; Lukov, V. A. (2012) Theories of youth: Interdisciplinary analysis. M.: Canon + ROOI “Rehabilitation”. 528 pp.; Parsons, T. (1965) General theoretical problems of sociology // Sociology today: Problems and prospects: American bourgeois sociology of the mid-20th century: abbr. lane from English / total ed. and preface G. V. Osipova. M.: Progress. 684 pp. pp. 25–67; Parsons, T. (1998) The System of Modern Societies. M.: Aspect Press. 270 pp.; Parsons, T. (2002) Essay on a social system // Parsons, T. On social systems. M.: Academic. Project. 832 pp. pp. 543–686; Parsons, T. (1964) The Social System. N.Y., 1964. N.Y.: The free press, 1964. 575 p.; Turner, Br. S. Prefice to the New Edition // Parsons, T. The Social System. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. 404 p. P. XIII–XXX.

Talcott Parsons

Parsons Talcott (1902–1979). Outstanding American sociologist and theorist, student P.A. Sorokina, creator of the theory of social action and the systemic-functional direction in modern sociology. Parsons put forward the task of constructing a general sociological theory and made a serious attempt to solve it. He paid attention to the problem of stability and survival of society as a social system. His main works: “The Structure of Social Action” (1937), “The Social System” (1951), “Towards a General Theory of Action” (1952), “The Social System and the Evolution of the Theory of Action” (1977), “The Theory of Action and the Conditions of Human Existence” ” (1978), etc.

A. Akmalova, V. M. Kapitsyn, A. V. Mironov, V. K. Mokshin. Dictionary-reference book on sociology. Educational edition. 2011.

Parsons Talcott (1902-1979) - American sociologist, head of the functional school. The name of Parsons is associated with the search for a “general theory” in modern Western sociology. The theory laid out in his essays “The Structure of Social Action” (1937), “Essays on Pure and Applied Sociological Theory” (1949), “The Social System” (1952) and others claims to be such a theory of social action. Using the method of structural-functional analysis, Parsons constructs a model of a social system, the initial cell of which is the act of interaction between individuals. The mechanism by which consistency is established in their actions and the fulfillment of the roles prescribed to them by society is, from Parsons’ point of view, the assimilation of generally accepted norms, standards of behavior, and their transformation into internal motives of activity. The main factors determining people's behavior (and, consequently, the character of the social whole) are ideal factors (primarily the normative and value structure of social consciousness). Considering balance as the most important sign of the normal state of a social system, Parsons pays great attention to the processes of regulation, the means of social control over this state (the activities of political and legal bodies, reactions to the actions of people from others, etc.), designed to protect society from unwanted conflicts, sudden changes, etc. In the works “Structure and Progress in Modern Society” (1959), “Evolutionary Universals in Society” (1964), “Societies. Historical and comparative aspects" (1966) Parsons tries to use some ideas of evolutionism and include an analysis of their changes in the description of social systems. At the same time, by changes he understood mainly the internal differentiation of the system, enhancing its adaptive ability (adaptability), and not its transformation into a fundamentally different system.

Philosophical Dictionary. Ed. I.T. Frolova. M., 1991, p. 333.

Parsons Talcott (1902 - 1979) - American sociologist, founder of the school of structural functionalism and action theory. Since 1927 - teacher of economics, since 1931 - teacher, then head. Department of Social Relations, Faculty of Sociology, created by P.A. Sorokin, at Harvard University. Works: “The Structure of Social Action” (1937), “Essay on Sociological Theory” (1949), “The Social System” (1951), “Structure and Process in Modern Society” (1960), “Theory of Sociology and Modern Society” (1967 ), “Politics and Social Structure” (1969), “The System of Modern Societies” (1971), etc. He was engaged in the creation of a general sociological theory, which was supposed to systematically unite the empirical and theoretical material of the entire complex of social sciences. He developed structural-functional analysis - one of the main methods of political research. According to Parsons, society is a relatively stable, well-integrated and stable structure; Each element of society (subsystem) performs its function. Formulated four main functional requirements for a social system to ensure its survival: adaptation, goal achievement, integration and model maintenance. The adaptation function is provided by the economic subsystem; goal achievement function – political subsystem; function integration– legal institutions and customs; the function of maintaining the model is the belief system, morality and agents of socialization (family, educational institutions, etc.).

Materials used in the book: Political thought of modern times. Personalities, ideas, concepts: A brief reference / Comp. Mikhailova E.M. – Cheboksary: ​​CHKI RUK, 2010, p. 26.

Parsons Talcott (December 13, 1902, Colorado Springs - May 8, 1979, Munich) - American sociologist, head of the school of structural functionalism. Educated at the London School of Economics and the University of Heidelberg. From 1927 he taught at Harvard University, from 1944 - professor, and from 1946 - head of the department of social relations at Harvard University. When developing his general logical-deductive theoretical system of human reality, he relied on the ideas of E. Durkheim, V. Pareto, M. Weber, as well as the English economist A. Marshall. Parsons saw the specificity of social action in its symbolic nature (as evidenced by the use of such regulatory mechanisms as language, values, etc.), in its normativity (dependence on generally accepted norms and values), and finally, in its voluntarism (some irrationality, dependence on subjective vision of the situation). The starting points for the theory of social action are the concepts of “actor”, “situation”, “actor’s orientation towards the situation”. Considering the motivational structure of social action, Parsons identified cognitive (cognitive) orientation, including the ability to identify individual objects in the surrounding world by their properties, place, etc., cathectic orientation - the ability to identify objects that have positive value for the subject in terms of satisfying his needs, evaluative orientation - the ability to make a further selection of objects in terms of their priority. In addition, to characterize social action, the subject’s ability to set a goal and strive to achieve it, as well as to foresee what changes in the situation may lead to, is important. Introducing the concept of expectation, Parsons outlined the fact that social action is focused on the expectations of other partners in the situation and depends on them. Finally, the value orientation set by culture regulates action depending on objectively existing “external symbols” - values ​​or norms. Thus, Parsons distinguished in social action the relatively autonomous spheres of the individual with his needs and culture.

Developing general methodological principles of sociology in the spirit of systemic and functional approaches, Parsons considered the main problem of maintaining social equilibrium (a concept borrowed from Pareto), maintaining social order, a given stable state. Social conflicts, revolutions and other upheavals are manifestations of the painful state of society. From the standpoint of functionalism, Parsons considered each social phenomenon from the point of view of its role in maintaining stability and balance in society and formulated a set of functional problems, the solution of which is necessary to maintain the integrity of the social system. Among them are problems: adapting the system to external objects, achieving goals, integrating society and reproducing structure and maintaining cultural patterns, as well as relieving stress.

At the level of the social system, the function of adaptation is provided by the economic subsystem, the function of goal achievement is provided by the political subsystem, the function of integration is provided by legal institutions, and the function of reproduction of the structure is provided by culture (belief system, morality, organs of socialization of the individual).

Parsons' structural-functional analysis was focused on. on the study of the mechanisms of functioning of society. Turning to the problem of social development at the end of his life, Parsons considered it in the spirit of evolutionary theory, basing it on the principle of functional differentiation. The emergence of something qualitatively new in the course of social development was essentially denied.

Parsons' theoretical and methodological concepts have had a significant influence on modern Western sociology and continue to develop and be refined. At the same time, conservatism and the excessive complexity of its concept became the object of criticism by radical sociologists.

E.V. Osipova

New philosophical encyclopedia. In four volumes. / Institute of Philosophy RAS. Scientific ed. advice: V.S. Stepin, A.A. Guseinov, G.Yu. Semigin. M., Mysl, 2010, vol. III, N – S, p. 204-205.

Parsons Talcott (December 13, 1902, Colorado Springs, Colorado - May 8, 1979, Munich), American sociologist and theorist, one of the main representatives of the structural-functional trend in bourgeois sociology.

Parsons relied on the works of M. Weber, E. Durkheim, A. Marshall, V. Pareto, and also used modern systemic, cybernetic and symbolic-semiotic concepts. Parsons defended the need to build a general analytical logical-deductive theory of human action as the basis for solving particular empirical problems. Human action, according to Parsons, is a self-organizing system, the specificity of which, in contrast to systems of physical and biological action, he saw, firstly, in symbolism, i.e. in the presence of such symbolic regulation mechanisms as language, values, etc. d.; secondly, in normativity, that is, in the dependence of individual action on generally accepted values ​​and norms; finally, in voluntarism, that is, in a certain irrationality and independence from knowable environmental conditions and at the same time dependence on subjective “definitions of the situation.” On the basis of this, Parsons built an abstract formalized model of an action system, including cultural, social, personal and organismic subsystems that are in relationships of mutual exchange. One of the main components of Parsons’ concept is the so-called invariant set of functional problems: adaptation, goal achievement, integration, reproduction of structure and stress relief, the solution of which is provided by specialized subsystems. Thus, within a social system, the adaptation function is provided by the economic subsystem, the goal achievement function is provided by the political subsystem, the integration function is provided by legal institutions and customs, the structure reproduction function is provided by the system of beliefs, morality and socialization bodies (including family and educational institutions).

The system of concepts introduced by Parsons had a significant influence on American sociology, including empirical research. At the same time, his theory is criticized by empirically oriented or radically thinking bourgeois sociologists for its intellectual complexity and conservatism (C.R. Mills). Marxist sociologists criticize Parsons' theory for its formalism, ahistorical nature, idealistic orientation, underestimation of the significance of social conflicts and contradictions, apologetic attitudes, and show the inconsistency of the claims of his concept of structural functionalism to the role of a comprehensive sociological and anthropological theory.

Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Ch. editor: L. F. Ilyichev, P. N. Fedoseev, S. M. Kovalev, V. G. Panov. 1983.

Works: Family. Socialization and interaction process, L., 1956; Toward a general theory of action, Camb., 1959 (jointly with E. A. Shils); The social system, Glencoe (111.), 19592; The structure of social action, N.Y., 19612; Economy and society, L., 1964 (jointly with N. Smelser); Social structure and personality, N. Υ., 1964; Societies: evolutionary and comparative perspectives, Englewood Cliffs (N.J.), 1966; Sociological theory and modern society, N. Υ.-L., 1967; Some problems of general theory in sociology, in the book: Theoretical sociology, ed. by B. J. Tiryakian, N. Y., 1970; The evolution of societies, Englewood Cliffs (N.A.), 1977; Social system and the evolution oi action theory, N.Y.-L., 1977; in Russian trans., General Theoretic. problems of sociology, in the book: Sociology today, M., 1965; Information Bulletin Scientific Council on Problems of Specific Social Research of the USSR Academy of Sciences, No. 6, v. 1-2, M., 1968; No. 38, M., 1969; “Introduction” and “Conclusion” (“General overview”), in the book: Amer. sociology, trans. from English, M., 1972.

Literature: Zdravomyslov A.G., The problem of interest in sociology. theory, Leningrad, 1964; Criticism of modern bourgeois theoretical sociology, M., 1977; History of the bourgeoisie. sociology of the first half. 20th century, M., 1979, ch. 1, 4; The social theories of Talcott Parsons, ed. by M. Black, N.Y., 1961; Gouldner A. W., The coming crisis of western sociology, N. Y.-L., 1970.

Read further:

Philosophers, lovers of wisdom (biographical index).

Historical Persons of the United States (biographical index).

Essays:

General theoretical problems of sociology. – In the book: Sociology today. M., 1965;

System of modern societies. M., 1997;

The Structure of Social Action. N. Y., 1937;

The social system. N. Y., 1951;

Societies: Evolutionary and comparative Perspectives. Englewood Cliffs (N.J.), 1966;

Action Theory and the Human Condition. N.Y., 1978.

Literature:

Zdravomyslov A.G., The problem of interest in sociology. theory, Leningrad, 1964;

Criticism of modern bourgeois theoretical sociology, M., 1977;

History of the bourgeoisie. sociology of the first half. 20th century, M., 1979, ch. 1, 4;

The social theories of Talcott Parsons, ed. by M. Black, N.Y., 1961;

Gouldner A. W., The coming crisis of western sociology, N. Y.-L., 1970.

Weber's concept of social action was further developed in the works of an American researcher T. Parsons (1902-1979) , the main ones being: “The Structure of Social Action”, “The Social System” and “Towards a General Theory of Action”.

Already from the title of the works it follows that T. Parsons tried to consider the structure of society as a kind of hierarchy of action systems interacting with each other. At the same time, it is characterized by an extremely broad theoretical approach to the analyzed problem, in which the personal and social, individualistic and holistic, biological and societal, rational and irrational, systemic and cybernetic interpretation of a social object are closely intertwined, embodied in the rather abstract concept of “general system” actions”, because it is not specific actions and actions of people that are analyzed, but a certain generalized scheme or model, which is a theoretical construct, which is then superimposed on the real relationships of people and the structure of society. Let's look at this model in more detail.

The general model of social action by T. Parsons is defined by the concept of “single act”.

The elements of social action are: 1) actor; 2) the situational environment or environmental factors that are influenced by the factor and have a reverse effect on it; 3) there are four main factors of a “single act”, which are independent systems of action - these are: biological (or physical), cultural, personal Andsocial; 4) each action system is divided into four subsystems; 5) each action system, being open, must satisfy four functionally necessary conditions (prerequisites): adaptation, goal setting, integration and latency, or maintaining a sample; 6) processes play the highest role in the formation of systems and subsystems of action socialization Andinstitutionalization; 7) functional relationships between systems and action subsystems are determined through the exchange of symbolic information, which ensures the autonomy of the subsystems and their integration into the whole system; 8) the social significance of systems and subsystems of action is determined by their energy Andinformational potential; 9) the information potential of the system determines its control function: the higher this potential, the stronger this function is manifested; 10) energy and information potentials are inversely proportional to each other.

Thus, the action, according to T. Parsons, has consciously rational, purposeful, selective character. It is influenced by four relatively independent but interacting systems of action (biological, cultural, personal and social). Interaction is carried out on a physical, energy and information basis. Systems at a higher information level play a predominant role in controlling the communication of other systems. Each of the identified systems has its own subsystems of action. All of them are carriers of four main functions and are complemented by coordinate axes that define the framework for the choice of the actor.

Having analyzed the structure of activity in this way, T. Parsons tried to recreate on its basis the structure of society and ways of changing it. His ideas formed the basis of the structural-functional analysis of society, widespread in the West, which was criticized for its formal approach, but, nevertheless, contained a number of productive ideas that served as the starting points for many other sociological concepts.

Talcott Parsons (1902-1979) is one of the most significant sociologists of the second half of the 20th century, who most fully formulated the foundations of functionalism. In his writings, Parsons paid considerable attention to the problem of social order. He proceeded from the fact that social life is more characterized by “mutual benefit and peaceful cooperation than mutual hostility and destruction,” arguing that only adherence to common values ​​provides the basis for order in society. He illustrated his views with examples of commercial transactions. When carrying out a transaction, the interested parties draw up a contract based on regulatory rules. From Parsons's point of view, the fear of sanctions for violating the rules is not enough to make people follow them strictly. Moral obligations play a major role here. Therefore, the rules governing commercial transactions must flow from generally accepted values ​​that indicate what is right and proper. Therefore, order in an economic system is based on general agreement on commercial morality. The sphere of business, like any other component of society, is necessarily also the sphere of morality.

Parsons, considering society as a system, believes that any social system must meet four basic functional requirements:

adaptation - concerns the relationship between a system and its environment: in order to exist, the system must have a certain degree of control over its environment. For society, the economic environment is of particular importance, which should provide people with the necessary minimum of material goods;

goal achievement - expresses the need of all societies to establish goals towards which social activity is directed;

integration - refers to the coordination of parts of a social system. The main institution through which this function is realized is law. Through legal norms, relationships between individuals and institutions are regulated, which reduces the potential for conflict. If a conflict does arise, it should be resolved through the legal system, avoiding the disintegration of the social system;

sample retention (latency) - involves preserving and maintaining the basic values ​​of society.

Parsons used this structural-functional grid when analyzing any social phenomenon.

Consensus and stability of a system does not mean that it is not capable of change. On the contrary, in practice no social system is in a state of perfect equilibrium, so the process of social change can be represented as a “fluid equilibrium.” Thus, if the relationship between society and its environment changes, this will lead to changes in the social system as a whole. Parsons continued to develop the theory of social action

Weber. He considers the subject of sociology to be a system of (social) action, which, unlike social action (the action of an individual), includes the organized activity of many people. The action system includes subsystems that perform interrelated functions: 1) social subsystem (group of people) - the function of integrating people; 2) cultural subsystem - reproduction of a pattern of behavior used by a group of people; 3) personal subsystem - goal achievement; 4) behavioral organism - the function of adaptation to the external environment.

Parsons views society as a type of social subsystem that has the highest degree of self-sufficiency in relation to the environment - natural and social. Society consists of four systems - bodies that perform certain functions in the structure of society:

a societal community consisting of a set of norms of behavior that serves to integrate people into society;

a subsystem for the preservation and reproduction of a pattern, consisting of a set of values ​​and serving to reproduce a pattern of typical social behavior;

a political subsystem that serves to set and achieve goals;

economic (adaptive) subsystem, which includes a set of roles of people in interaction with the material world.

The core of society, according to Parsons, is a societal subsystem consisting of different people, their statuses and roles, which need to be integrated into a single whole. A societal community is a complex network (horizontal relationships) of interpenetrating typical groups and collective loyalties: families, firms, churches, etc. Each such type of collective consists of many specific families, firms, etc., which include a certain number people.

Social evolution, according to Parsons, is part of the evolution of living systems. Therefore, following Spencer, he argued that there is a parallel between the emergence of man as a biological species and the emergence of modern societies. All people, according to biologists, belong to the same species. Therefore, we can consider that all societies originated from

one type of society. All societies go through the following stages: 1) primitive; 2) advanced primitive; 3) intermediate; 4) modern.

The primitive type of society (primitive communal society) is characterized by the homogeneity (syncretism) of its systems. The basis of social ties is formed by family and religious ties. Members of society have role statuses prescribed to them by society, largely depending on age and gender.

Advanced primitive society is characterized by division into primitive subsystems (political, religious, economic). The role of prescribed statuses is weakening: people's lives are increasingly determined by their success, which depends on people's abilities and luck.

In intermediate societies, further differentiation of systems of social action occurs. There is a need for their integration. Writing appears, separating the literate from everyone else. On the basis of literacy, information begins to be accumulated, transmitted over a distance, and preserved in the historical memory of the people. People's ideals and values ​​are freed from religiosity.

Modern society originates in Ancient Greece. It gave rise to a system of modern (European) societies, which are characterized by the following features:

differentiation of adaptive, goal-directing, integrative, supporting subsystems;

the basic role of a market economy (private property, mass production, goods market, money, etc.);

the development of Roman law as the main mechanism for coordination and control of social activities;

social stratification of society based on the criteria of success (political, economic, cultural).

In every social system, two types of processes occur. Some processes are control and integrative, which restore balance (stabilization) of the social system after external and internal disturbances. These social processes (demographic, economic, political, spiritual) ensure the reproduction of society and the continuity of its development. Other processes affect the system of basic ideals, values, and norms that guide people in social behavior. These are called processes of structural change. They are deeper and more substantial.

Parsons identifies four mechanisms for the evolution of social systems and societies:

the mechanism of differentiation studied by Spencer, when systems of social action are divided into more specialized ones in their elements and functions (for example, the production and educational functions of the family were transferred to enterprises and schools);

a mechanism for increasing adaptability to the external environment as a result of differentiation of social action systems (for example, a farm produces more diverse products, with less labor costs and in larger quantities);

an integration mechanism that ensures the inclusion of new systems of social action into society (for example, the inclusion of private property, political parties, etc. in post-Soviet society);

a mechanism of value generalization, consisting in the formation of new ideals, values, norms of behavior and their transformation into a mass phenomenon (for example, the beginnings of a culture of competition in post-Soviet Russia). The listed mechanisms of societies act together, therefore the evolution of societies, for example, Russian, is the result of the simultaneous interaction of all these mechanisms.

Talcott Parsons (1902-1979) - an outstanding American sociologist, author of the theory of structural functionalism. His books: “The Social System”, “Sociological Theory and Modern Society”, “The Structure of Social Action”. Society, according to Parsons, is a complex system of social elements in a state of active interaction. The interaction of social elements is guided by a value system. The nature of values ​​is inexperienced. Social dynamics are determined by morality. The relationship of the structural units that make up society is based on the functions that ensure the survival of society: adaptation (the problem of rational organization and distribution of resources), goal orientation, integration (the problem of maintaining the internal unity of the system), maintaining a pattern (the problem of motivating human activity, coordinating motives with the goals of society). Each function is provided by corresponding institutions, which are grouped by systems of society. Parsons identified the principles of orderly society: 1) utilitarianism, according to which a person strives for his own benefit, acts rationally and expects a reward; 2) positivism - a set of causal relationships that determine human activity in a certain situation; 3) idealism - human activity is considered from the point of view of value-normative regulation. Parsons singled out elementary social action, to explain which he resorted to the theory of psychoanalysis. The main elements of social action: situation, conditions of activity, figure, goals, norms, rules of behavior, ways to achieve goals. All these elements are included in the system and each performs its own function. Dimensions of social action: social, cultural, personal. Human behavior is determined by typical standard variables. These are certain pairs of norms that Parsons called patterns within which behavior changes. For example, self-orientation or group-orientation. The social system performs the following functions: adaptation, goal achievement, integration, preservation of the structural pattern. The main provisions of Parsons' functional approach: 1) social systems are oriented towards stability; 2) social systems are integrated; 3) social systems are based on consent; 4) social life includes the need for social control and responsibilities of the individual; 5) the basis of social life are norms and values; 6) social life depends on cooperation, interaction, solidarity. Not every behavior is a social action. Social action must be purposeful and have subjective meaning. The one who acts must have knowledge of the conditions in which the goal is realized, the objects with which he is dealing; feel the need to achieve goals and react emotionally to their activities. Parsons paid attention to the study of social tension, religious values, and social modernization. His work has had a great influence on modern sociology.